new_zealand_english - hellog〜英語史ブログ

■ #5978. ONZE --- Origins of New Zealand English Project [link][new_zealand_english][variety][language_change][bibliography]

　ニュージーランド英語 (new_zealand_english) の起源を探る調査が1980年代後半から活発化してきている．その中心的な役割を果たしてきたのが ONZE (Origins of New Zealand English Project) というプロジェクトだ．ニュージーランドのカンタベリ大学が拠点となっている．
　Williams (1998--99) による簡単な紹介を読んでみよう．

For the origins of the New Zealand accent, a unique set of data are available in the form of recordings made throughout rural New Zealand in the 1940s, among them some of the first New-Zealand-born speakers of English which allowed people on the Origins of New Zealand English Project (ONZE n.d.) to document the embryonic stages of the New Zealand accent.

　ONZE の調査とその成果については，Gordon (et al.) や Trudgill の一連の研究が詳しい．以下に主要な論著の書誌を挙げておく．

　・ Gordon, Elizabeth. "That Colonial Twang: New Zealand Speech and New Zealand Identity." Culture and Identity in New Zealand. Ed. David Novitz and Bill Willmott. Wellington: GP Books, 1989. 77--90.
　・ Gordon, Elizabeth. "The Origins of New Zealand Speech: The Limits of Recovering Historical Information from Written Records." English World-Wide 19(19): 61--85.
　・ Gordon, Elizabeth and Andrea Sudbury. "The History of Southern Hemisphere Englishes." Alternative Histories of English. Ed. Richard Watts and Peter Trudgill. London: Routledge, 2002. 67--86.
　・ Gordon, Elizabeth, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret MacLagan, Andrea Sudbury, and Peter Trudgill. New Zealand English: Its Origins and Evolution. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge UP, 2004.
　・ Trudgill, Peter. Dialects in Contact. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.
　・ Trudgill, Peter. "A Window on the Past: 'Colonial Lag' and New Zealand Evidence for the Phonology of Nineteenth-Century English." American Speech 74(3): 227--39.
　・ Trudgill, Peter. New Dialect Formation: The Inevitability of Colonial Englishes. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2004.
　・ Trudgill, Peter, Elizabeth Gordon, Gillian Lewis, and Margaret Maclagan. "Determinism in New-Dialect Formation and the Genesis of New Zealand English." Journal of Linguistics 36: 299--318.

　・ Williams, Colin H. "Varieties of English: Australian/New Zealand English." Chapter 127 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1995--2012.

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■ #5976. オーストラリア英語とニュージーランド英語は「つかず離れず」 [new_zealand_english][australian_english][variety][world_englishes][history_of_linguistics]

　イギリスからみて地球の裏側にあることから「対蹠地」 (the Antipodes) と称されるオーストラリアとニュージーランド．この2つの地域で行なわれている英語変種は，それぞれオーストラリア英語 (Australian English; AusE)，ニュージーランド英語 (New Zealand English; NZE) といわれる．
　歴史的，地理的，文化的に近い変種なので，しばしば一緒に扱われる．一般的には国としての「大きさ」の違いが念頭にあるからか，AusE がメインで NZE がサブと扱われることが多い．もちろん，このような認識は NZE 話者にとっては快いものではないだろう．
　両変種の研究史をみても，AusE のほうが手厚く扱われてきたという事情はある．しかし，ここ30年ほどの間に事情が変わってきた．NZE は AusE と比べて，いな他の主要な英語変種と比べても，さかんに研究されるようになってきたのである．両変種を同じ章のなかで概説している Williams の冒頭の段落を引用する (1996) ．

The concept of a joint chapter on Australian (AusE) and New Zealand English (NZE) is controversial, especially to New Zealanders who might justly object to being treated simply as an appendix to Australia. Initially, the description of NZE lagged behind that of the variety across the Tasman: in the early 1990s, there was a more substantial body of research on AusE; the situation has been rectified, however, and NZE is no longer "the dark horse of World English regional dialectology" (Crystal 1995: 354) but one of the most researched varieties worldwide . . . . In fact, as far as the evolution of the regional accent is concerned, much better evidence is available for NZE . . . . The history of the two varieties receives separate treatment in volume 5 of the Cambridge History of the English Language (Burchfield 1994). The histories of Australia and New Zealand are closely connected, however . . . , and the following account will not treat the development of the two varieties separately. Instead, the historical account of their accents, lexicon, grammar, and dialects will take a comparative approach in order to tease out the common ground and differences in the development of the two inner-circle varieties in the south Pacific.

　先日の記事「#5974. New Zealand English のメイキング」 ([2025-09-04-1]) で触れたように，AusE と NZE の関係は複雑である．深い関係にあることは確からしいが，何がどこまで互いの影響によるものなのか具体的につかめないことが多いからだ．今後の本ブログでも，両変種の「つかず離れず」を味わっていこうと思う．

　・ Williams, Colin H. "Varieties of English: Australian/New Zealand English." Chapter 127 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1995--2012.
　・ Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 1995.

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■ #5974. New Zealand English のメイキング [new_zealand_english][maori][history][cockney][sociolinguistics][variety][founder_principle][dialect_contact][dialect_mixture][dialect_levelling][australian_english][100_places]

　ニュージーランド英語については「#1799. New Zealand における英語の歴史」 ([2014-03-31-1])，「#402. Southern Hemisphere Shift」 ([2010-06-03-1])，「#278. ニュージーランドにおけるマオリ語の活性化」 ([2010-01-30-1]) を含む new_zealand_english) の記事群で取り上げてきた．今回は最近お気に入りの A History of the English Language in 100 Places の第52節 "WAITANGI --- the English Language in New Zealand (1840)" より，New Zealand English のメイキングについての解説を読みたい (129--31) ．

On 6 February 1840, at Waitangi, Aoteoroa, Maori chiefs signed a treaty with the representatives of the British government. The Maori were agreeing to permanent white settlement in their islands. The treaty of Waitangi signalled the moment when the British, not the French, asserted possession of what was renamed New Zealand; it was also the moment when English was destined to become the dominant European language of Aotearoa.
   After 1840, European migration to New Zealand came almost exclusively from the British Isles. A census in 1871 showed that of these various migrants, 51 per cent came from England, 27 per cent from Scotland, 22 per cent from Ireland. The majority spoke regional dialects unlike the upper-class English of the colony's administrators. That division shaped linguistic attitudes and accents until the 1960s at least. At the same time, the Maori language provided many terms for local animals, plants and landscape features.
   The proportions of the 1871 census suggest the founding elements of New Zealand English, but they do not take account of the fact that there was a continuous movement back and forth between New Zealand and Australia. Some 6 per cent of the 1871 white population was born in Australia, and very large numbers of those who came from the British Isles first landed in Australia before deciding to move to New Zealand. Australian English had then --- and continues to have --- a strong influence. . . .
   As in Australia, school inspectors, administrators and leaders of opinion complained from the beginning about the kind of English that they found widespread in New Zealand. A major complaint was that many New Zealanders said 'in', not 'ing', a the ends of words; they added and dropped 'h's improperly; and generally sounded Cockney.
   New Zealand linguists challenged the idea that there were large numbers of Londoners among the immigrants to New Zealand. Moreover, within England and the Empire, Cockney was the accent most disliked by upper-class English speakers, and there was a tendency to label any disliked accent as Cockney. Arguing for a levelling of the nineteenth-century English, Irish and Scottish immigrant dialects, New Zealand linguists claim that a distinctive voice appeared about 1900 and spread rapidly through the country. It was initially noted in derogatory terms as a colonial drawl or twang. However, modern-day New Zealanders have homogenized their speech, eroding the once unacceptable drawl as well as the once superior vowels.

　ニュージーランド英語は，英語母語話者が入植した当初のイギリス諸島由来の諸方言をベースとしつつも，対蹠地の兄弟としてのオーストラリア英語の影響を被り，さらに土着のマオリ語の語彙も多く借用しながら混交してきた．オーストラリア英語と同様に，一般に Cockney の影響の強い変種とみられることが多いが，それは「Cockney ＝非標準的な諸変種」という大雑把すぎる前提に基づいた誤解である可能性が高い．ニュージーランドでは，20世紀にかけて前世紀までに行なわれていた様々な変種が水平化し，現代につらなるニュージーランドらしい英語変種が生まれてきた，と考えられる．

　・ Lucas, Bill and Christopher Mulvey. A History of the English Language in 100 Places. London: Robert Hale, 2013.

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■ #5342. 切り取り (clipping) による語形成の類型論 [word_formation][shortening][abbreviation][clipping][terminology][polysemy][homonymy][morphology][typology][apostrophe][hypocorism][name_project][onomastics][personal_name][australian_english][new_zealand_english][emode][ame_bre]

　語形成としての切り取り (clipping) については，多くの記事で取り上げてきた．とりわけ形態論の立場から「#893. shortening の分類 (1)」 ([2011-10-07-1]) で詳しく紹介した．
　先日12月8日の Voicy 「英語の語源が身につくラジオ」 (heldio) の配信回にて「#921. 2023年の英単語はコレ --- rizz」と題して，clipping による造語とおぼしき最新の事例を取り上げた．

　この配信回では，2023年の Oxford Word of the Year が rizz に決定したというニュースを受け，これが charisma の clipping による短縮形であることを前提として charisma の語源を紹介した．
　rizz が charisma の clipping による語形成であることを受け入れるとして，もとの単語の語頭でも語末でもなく真ん中部分が切り出された短縮語である点は特筆に値する．このような語形成は，それほど多くないと見込まれるからだ．「#893. shortening の分類 (1)」 ([2011-10-07-1]) の "Mesonym" で取り上げたように，例がないわけではないが，やはり珍しいには違いない．以下の解説によると "fore-and-aft clipping" と呼んでもよい．
　heldio のリスナーからも関連するコメント・質問が寄せられたので，この問題と関連して McArthur の英語学用語辞典より "clipping" を引用しておきたい (223--24) ．

CLIPPING [1930s in this sense]. Also clipped form, clipped word, shortening. An abbreviation formed by the loss of word elements, usually syllabic: pro from professional, tec from detective. The process is attested from the 16c (coz from cousin 1559, gent from gentleman 1564); in the early 18c, Swift objected to the reduction of Latin mobile vulgus (the fickle throng) to mob. Clippings can be either selective, relating to one sense of a word only (condo is short for condominium when it refers to accommodation, not to joint sovereignty), or polysemic (rev stands for either revenue or revision, and revs for the revolutions of wheels). There are three kinds of clipping:

(1) Back-clippings, in which an element or elements are taken from the end of a word: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s. Back-clipping is common with diminutives formed from personal names Cath(erine) Will(iam). Clippings of names often undergo adaptations: Catherine to the pet forms Cathie, Kate, Katie, William to Willie, Bill, Billy. Sometimes, a clipped name can develop a new sense: willie a euphemism for penis, billy a club or a male goat. Occasionally, the process can be humorously reversed: for example, offering in a British restaurant to pay the william.
(2) Fore-clippings, in which an element or elements are taken from the beginning of a word: ham(burger), omni(bus), violon(cello), heli(copter), alli(gator), tele(phone), earth(quake). They also occur with personal names, sometimes with adaptations: Becky for Rebecca, Drew for Andrew, Ginny for Virginia. At the turn of the century, a fore-clipped word was usually given an opening apostrophe, to mark the loss: 'phone, 'cello, 'gator. This practice is now rare.
(3) Fore-and-aft clippings, in which elements are taken from the beginning and end of a word: in(flu)enza, de(tec)tive. This is commonest with longer personal names: Lex from Alexander, Liz from Elizabeth. Such names often demonstrate the versatility of hypocoristic clippings: Alex, Alec, Lex, Sandy, Zander; Eliza, Liz, Liza, Lizzie, Bess, Betsy, Beth, Betty.

Clippings are not necessarily uniform throughout a language: mathematics becomes maths in BrE and math in AmE. Reverend as a title is usually shortened to Rev or Rev., but is Revd in the house style of Oxford University Press. Back-clippings with -ie and -o are common in AusE and NZE: arvo afternoon, journo journalist. Sometimes clippings become distinct words far removed from the applications of the original full forms: fan in fan club is from fanatic; BrE navvy, a general labourer, is from a 19c use of navigator, the digger of a 'navigation' or canal. . . .

　・ McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.

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■ #2388. 世界の主要な英語変種の音韻的分類 [world_englishes][model_of_englishes][ame_bre][ame][bre][irish_english][australian_english][new_zealand_english][scots_english][map]

　世界の主要な英語変種を分類する試みは，主として社会言語学的な視点から様々になされてきた．本ブログでも，model_of_englishes の記事で取り上げてきた通りである．言語学的な観点からの分類としては，Trudgill and Hannah による音韻に基づくものが知られている．概論的にいえば，大きく 'English' type と 'American' type に2分する方法であり，直感的で素人にも理解しやすい．この常識的に見える分類が，結論としては，専門的な見地からも支持されるということである．この 'American' type と 'English' type の2分法は，より積極的に歴史的な視点を取れば，大雑把にいってイングランド内の 'northern' type と 'southern' type の2分法に相当することに注意したい．
　Trudgill and Hannah (10) は，音韻論的に注目すべき鍵として以下の10点を挙げて，英語諸変種を図式化した．

Key
1. /ɑː/ rather than /æ/ in path etc.
2. absence of non-prevocalic /r/
3. close vowels for /æ/ and /ɛ/, monophthongization of /ai/ and /ɑu/
4. front [aː] for /ɑː/ in part etc.
5. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɔː/ as in cot and caught
6. /æ/ rather than /ɑː/ in can't etc.
7. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɑː/ as in bother and father
8. consistent voicing of intervocalic /t/
9. unrounded [ɑ] in pot
10. syllabic /r/ in bird
11. absence of contrast of /ʊ/ and /uː/ as in pull and pool

10  9   8   7   6   5        6   7   8   9   11         10         11  5   1   2

|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   |          |          |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   | Northern |          |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   | Canada |   |   |   |   | Ireland  | Scotland |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   `----------+----------'   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |              |              |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   `--------+---+---+---+--------------+--------------'   |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   |              |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   `----------,   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |   USA      |   |   |   ,----------+---+------------------'   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   | Republic |   |                      |
|   |   |   |   `------------'   |   |   |   of     |   |   ,------------------'
|   |   |   |                    |   |   | Ireland  |   |   |
|   |   |   `--------------------'   |   |          |   |   |  England  ,--------------------------------- 3
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |           | 
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |  Wales    |         ,----------------------- 4
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |           | South   | Australia   New
|   |   `----------------------------'   |          |   |   |           | Africa  |             Zealand
|   |                                    |          |   |   |           |         `----------------------- 4
|   |                                    |          |   |   |           |
|   `------------------------------------+----------'   |   |           `--------------------------------- 3
|                                        |              |   |
`----------------------------------------+--------------'   `--------------------------------------------- 2
                                         |
                                         `---------------------------------------------------------------- 1

　この図の説明として，Trudgill and Hannah (10) を引こう．

We have attempted to portray the relationships between the pronunciations of the major non-Caribbean varieties in [this] Figure 1.1. This diagram is somewhat arbitrary and slightly misleading (there are, for example, accents of USEng which are close to RP than to mid-western US English), but it does show the two main types of pronunciation: an 'English' type (EngEng, WEng, SAfEng, AusEng, NZEng) and an 'American' type (USEng, CanEng), with IrEng falling somewhere between the two and ScotEng being somewhat by itself.

　最後に触れられているように，Irish English が2大区分にまたがること，古い歴史をもつ Scots English が独自路線を行っていることは興味深い．

　・ Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.

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