古英語の授業で，当時は winter が「冬」に加えて「年」を意味することがしばしばあったことに触れた．具体的には「#3317. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle にみる Hengest と Horsa」 ([2018-05-27-1]) で引用した，件の年代記の449年の記述の第1文について解説していたときである．
Martiānus and Valentīnus . . . rīcsodon seofon winter. (= Martianus and Valentinus ruled seven years.)
年代記ではこのように統治者の統治年数などがよく言及されるが，そのような場合，年を数えるのに winter という中性名詞がしばしば使われる．中性名詞の一部は複数主格・対格形が対応する単数の形態と同形となるため，この箇所でも「7年間」の意にもかかわらず形態は winter となっている（ここでは期間を表わす「副詞的対格」の用法で用いられている．cf. 「#783. 副詞 home は名詞の副詞的対格から」 ([2011-06-19-1])）．現代英語の year の古英語形である ġēar （これも中性名詞で単複同形）が用いられることも多いが，winter も同様によく用いられるのである．
「冬」をもって「年」を表わすという上記の事情を授業で説明したら，多くの学生から「詩的」「風情ありすぎ」など多くの反響があった．ということで，以下にもう少し詳しく解説しておきたい．
確かに本来 winter は1年 (year) を構成する季節の1つにすぎない．しかし，寒冷な彼の地では，冬を越すことこそが1年を無事に過ごすことであり，越冬した回数をもって年や歳を数えるという慣習が発達したものと想像される．古ノルド語や古アイスランド語でも，案の定，事情は平行的である．気候と文化に基づいたメトニミーの好例といえる．
「年」を意味する winter を用いた表現は，古英語から中英語を経て，近現代英語でも詩的あるいは古風な表現として健在である．いくつか挙げてみると，many winters ago （何年も前に），an old man of eighty winters （八十路の老人），pass two winters abroad （外国で2年過ごす）などとなる．
中英語からの例は，MED winter (n.) より確認できるが，the age of fifti winter, fif-tene winter of age, o fif-tene winter elde, of eighte-tene winter age, the wei of five hundred winter, fourti winter, yeres and winteres など枚挙にいとまがない．
なお，動詞 winter は中英語での発達だが「越冬する」を意味する．また，今では廃用となっている過去分詞形容詞 wintered は1600年頃まで「年老いた」の意味で用いられていた．さらに，イングランド北部やスコットランド方言に限られるようだが，現在でも2歳の牛・馬・羊を指して twinter (n., adj.) という言い方が残っている．
日本語でも「幾星霜」と霜の降りる冬に引っかけた歳月の数え方がある．一方で「幾春秋を経る」という表現もある．言語によってどの季節を代表に取るかは異なり得るとしても，この種のメトニミーは通言語的に普通にみられるのだろう．
関連して，季節を表わす語については「#1221. 季節語の歴史」 ([2012-08-30-1]) を参照．
アルフレッド大王による Cura Pastoralis (or Pastoral Care) の古英語訳（893年頃）の序文に，9世紀後半当時のイングランドにおいて，ヴァイキングの襲来により学問が衰退してしまったことを嘆く有名な1節がある．アルフレッドはこの文化的危機を脱するべく教育改革を行ない，その成果は1世紀ほど後に現われ，10世紀後半のベネディクト改革 (the Benedictine Reform) や文芸の復活へとつながっていった．その意味では，文化史・文学史的に重要な1節であるといえる．その文章から，とりわけよく知られている部分を古英語原文で引用しよう (Mitchell and Robinson 204--05) ．アルフレッド大王の本気が伝わってくる．
Ælfred kyning hāteð grētan Wǣrferð biscep his wordum luflīce ond frēondlīce; ond ðē cȳðan hāte ðæt mē cōm swīðe oft on gemynd, hwelce wiotan iū wǣron giond Angelcynn . . . ond hū man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ond lāre hieder on lond sōhte; ond hū wē hīe nū sceoldon ūte begietan, gif wē hīe habban sceoldon. Swǣ clǣne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on Angelcynne ðæt swīðe fēawa wǣron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðēninga cūðen understondan on Englisc oððe furðum ān ǣrendgewrit of Lǣdene on Englisc āreccean; ond ic wēne ðætte nōht monige begiondan Humbre nǣren. Swǣ fēawa hiora wǣron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne ne mæg geðencean be sūðan Temese ðā ðā ic tō rīce fēng. Gode ælmihtegum sīe ðonc ðætte wē nū ǣnigne onstal habbð lārēowa.
Crystal (13) より，この箇所に対する現代語を与えておく．
King Alfred sends his greetings to Bishop Werferth in his own words, in love and friendship . . . . I want to let you know that it has often occurred to me to think what wise men there once were throughout England . . . and how people once used to come here from abroad in search of wisdom and learning --- and how nowadays we would have to get it abroad (if we were to have it at all). Learning had so declined in England that there were very few people this side of the Humber who could understand their service-books in English, let alone translate a letter out of Latin into English --- and I don't imagine there were many north of the Humber, either. There were so few of them that I cannot think of even a single one south of the Thames at the time when I came to the throne. Thanks be to almighty God that we now have any supply of teachers.
・ Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 5th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 1992.
・ Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
17世紀後半の英文学の巨匠 John Dryden (1631--1700) が，3世紀ほど前の Chaucer の韻律を理解できていなかったことは，よく知られている．後期中英語から初期近代英語にかけてのこの時期には，"final e" に代表される屈折語尾に現われる無強勢母音が完全に消失し，「屈折の水平化」と呼ばれる英語史上の一大変化が完遂された．この変化の後の時代を生きていた Dryden は，変化が起こる前（正確にいえば，起こりかけていた）時代の Chaucer の音韻や韻律を想像することができなかったのである．Dryden は，Chaucer の詩行末に現われる final e を，17世紀の英語さながらに存在しないものと理解していた．結果として，Chaucer の韻律は Dryden の琴線に触れることはなかった．
上記のことは，Dryden 自身の Chaucer 評からわかる．Cable (25) 経由で，Dryden (Essays II: 258--59) の批評を引用しよう．
The verse of Chaucer, I confess, is not harmonious to us . . . there is the rude sweetness of a Scotch tune in it, which is natural and pleasing, though not perfect. It is true, I cannot go so far as he who published the last edition of him; for he would make us believe the fault is in our ears, and that there were really ten syllables in a verse where we find but nine. But this opinion is not worth confuting; it is so gross and obvious an errour, that common sense (which is rare in everything but matters of faith and revelation) must convince the reader, that equality of numbers in every verse which we call heroic, was either not known, or not always practiced in Chaucer's age.
Dryden の抱いていたような誤解は，その後2世紀ほどかけて文献学の進展により取り除かれることになったものの，final -e という形式的には小さな要素が，英語史においても英文学史においても，いかに大きな存在であったかが知られる好例だろう．
・ Cable, Thomas. "Restoring Rhythm." Chapter 3 of Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Introduction. Ed. Mary Heyes and Allison Burkette. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 21--28.
・ Dryden, John. Essays. Ed. W. P. Ker. Oxford: Clarendon, 1926.
449年，Hengest と Horsa というジュート人の兄弟がブリトン人を助けるためにイングランドに渡り，その後むしろイングランドを征服してしまうという事件が起こった．このくだりは，The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle に詳しいが，以下では古英語初学者向けに改編された Smith (158--59) より，関連する古英語[2018-05-31-1]原文箇所を引用する．年代記の449年，455年，457年の記述より抜粋したものである．現代英語訳も付いているので，古英語読解の学習にもどうぞ．（別の関連する記述は「#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes の故地と移住先」 ([2010-05-21-1]) および「#2900. 449年，アングロサクソン人によるブリテン島侵略」 ([2017-04-05-1]) を参照．）
Anno 449. Hēr Martiānus and Valentīnus onfēngon rice, and rīcsodon seofon winter. And on hiera dagum Hengest and Horsa, fram Wyrtgeorne gelaþode, Bretta cyninge, gesōton Bretene on þǣm stede þe is genemned Ypwinesflēot, ǣrest Brettum tō fultume, ac hīe eft on hīe fuhton. Se cyning hēt hīe feohtan ongēan Peohtas; and hīe swā dydon, and sīge hæfdon swā hwǣr swā hīe cōmon. Hīe þā sendon tō Angle, and hēton him sendan māran fultum. Þā sendon hīe him māran fultum. Þā cōmon þā menn of þrim mǣgþum Germānie: of Ealdseaxum, of Englum, of Iotum.
455. Hēr Hengest and Horsa fuhton wiþ Wyrtgeorne þǣm cyninge in þǣre stōwe þe is genemned Æglesþrep; and his brōþor Horsan man ofslōg. And æfter þǣm Hengest fēng tō rīce, and Æsc his sunu.
457. Hēr Hengest and Æsc fuhton wiþ Brettas in þǣre stōwe þe is genemned Crecganford, and þǣr ofslōgon fēower þūsend wera. Þā forlēton þā Brettas Centland, and mid micle ege flugon tō Lundenbyrig.
Anno 449. In this year [lit. here] Martianus and Valentinus succeeded to [lit. received] kingship, and ruled seven years. And in their days Hengest and Horsa, invited by Vortigern, king of [the] Britons, came to Britain at the place which is called Ebbsfeet, first as a help to [the] Britons, but they afterwards fought against them. The king commanded them to fight against [the] Picts; and they did so, and had victory wherever they came. Then they sent to Angeln, and told them to send more help. They then sent to them more help. Then the men came from three tribes in Germany: from [the] Old Saxons, from [the] Angles, from [the] Jutes.
455. In this year Hengest and Horsa fought against Vortigern the king in the place which is called Aylesford; and his brother Horsa was slain [lit. one slew his brother Horsa]. And after that Hengest and Æsc his son succeeded to kingship [lit. Hengest succeeded to kingship, and Æsc his son].
457. In this year Hengest and Æsc fought against [the] Britons in the place which is called Crayford, and there slew four thousand men [lit. of men]. The Britons then abandoned Kent, and with great fear fled to London.
Hengest と Horsa のブリテン島侵攻については，anglo-saxon の記事のほか，とりわけ以下を参照．
・ 「#33. ジュート人の名誉のために」 ([2009-05-31-1])
・ 「#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes の故地と移住先」 ([2010-05-21-1])
・ 「#1013. アングロサクソン人はどこからブリテン島へ渡ったか」 ([2012-02-04-1])
・ 「#2353. なぜアングロサクソン人はイングランドをかくも素早く征服し得たのか」 ([2015-10-06-1])
・ 「#2443. イングランドにおけるケルト語地名の分布」 ([2016-01-04-1])
・ 「#2493. アングル人は押し入って，サクソン人は引き寄せられた？」 ([2016-02-23-1])
・ 「#2900. 449年，アングロサクソン人によるブリテン島侵略」 ([2017-04-05-1])
・ 「#3094. 449年以前にもゲルマン人はイングランドに存在した」 ([2017-10-16-1])
・ 「#3113. アングロサクソン人は本当にイングランドを素早く征服したのか？」 ([2017-11-04-1]) を参照．
・ Smith, Jeremy J. Essentials of Early English. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2005.
先日，『ウィンストン・チャーチル／ヒトラーから世界を救った男』（原題 Darkest Hour）を観に行った．アカデミー賞で Gary Oldman が主演男優賞を獲得し，日本人の辻一弘氏がメイクアップ賞を初受賞した．ダンケルクの戦いを制することになるイギリス宰相 Winston Churchill の，対ドイツ戦線の苦悩を綴った作品である．詳細は省くが，映画ではかの有名な We Shall Fight on the Beaches の演説のシーンが再現される．1940年6月4日の下院における演説である．以下に，演説の最後の部分を転載しよう（典拠はこちら）．映画ではなく本物の音源は，こちらなどから YouTube で視聴できる．
I have, myself, full confidence that if all do their duty, if nothing is neglected, and if the best arrangements are made, as they are being made, we shall prove ourselves once again able to defend our Island home, to ride out the storm of war, and to outlive the menace of tyranny, if necessary for years, if necessary alone. At any rate, that is what we are going to try to do. That is the resolve of His Majesty's Government --- every man of them. That is the will of Parliament and the nation. The British Empire and the French Republic, linked together in their cause and in their need, will defend to the death their native soil, aiding each other like good comrades to the utmost of their strength. Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous States have fallen or may fall into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God's good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old.
この演説を英語語彙（史）の観点からみると，クライマックスの we shall fight on the beaches のくだりで用いられている語彙が概ね英語本来語であることが，寺澤盾先生の『英語の歴史』 (pp. 48--50) で触れられている．この箇所にフランス語やラテン語由来の語彙が豊富に織り交ぜられていたら，イギリス国民にさほど受けなかったかもしれない．歴史を変えたかもしれない（？）本来語使用というわけだ．
英語語彙の種類と階層性については，「#334. 英語語彙の三層構造」 ([2010-03-27-1]) や「#2977. 連載第6回「なぜ英語語彙に3層構造があるのか？ --- ルネサンス期のラテン語かぶれとインク壺語論争」」 ([2017-06-21-1]) の記事ほか，lexical_stratification の諸記事を参照．
・ 寺澤 盾 『英語の歴史』 中央公論新社〈中公新書〉，2008年.
中英語文学における黒死病の表象は様々あるが，Chaucer の The Canterbury Tales の "Pardoner's Tale" より，pestilence が Deeth と同一視されながら言及されている箇所を引こう．黒死病以後の強烈な memento mori の強迫観念，あるいは黒死病が死（神）のイメージと重ね合わされていることが，よく感じられるくだりである．Riverside Chaucer より関連箇所 (ll. 661--91) を引く．
Thise riotoures three of whiche I tell,
Longe erst er prime rong of any belle,
Were set hem in a taverne to drynke,
And as they sat, they herde a bell clynke
Biforn a cors, was caried to his grave.
That oon of hem gan callen to his knave:
"Go bet," quod he, "and axe redily
What cors is this that passeth heer forby;
And looke that thou reporte his name weel."
"Sir," quod this boy, "it nedeth never-a-deel;
It was me toold er ye cam heer two houres.
He was, pardee, an old felawe of youres,
And sodeynly he was yslayn to-nyght,
Fordronke, as he sat on his bench upright.
There cam a privee theef men clepeth Deeth,
That in this contree al the peple sleeth,
And with his spere he smoot his herte atwo,
And wente his wey withouten wordes mo.
He hath a thousand slayn this pestilence.
And, maister, er ye come in his presence,
Me thynketh that it were necessarie
For to be war of swich an adversarie.
Beth redy for to meete hym everemoore;
Thus taughte me my dame; I sey namoore."
"By Seinte Marie!" seyde this taverner,
"The child seith sooth, for he hath slayn this yeer,
Henne over a mile, withinne a greet village,
Bothe mam and womman, child, and hyne, and page;
I trowe his habitacioun be there.
To been avysed greet wysdom it were,
Er that he dide a man a dishonour."
物語の主人公である3人の放蕩者が，酔っ払いながら黒死病の象徴である「死」（＝伝染病）を探しだそうと決意する場面の描写だ．物語の最後には，彼らも「死」の餌食となる．暗喩に満ちた韻文だが，引用の前半にある黒死病の犠牲者の葬儀の描写は，穏やかならぬリアリズムを感じさせもする．このような描写に特徴づけられる「ペスト文学」は1つの文化といってよく，現実のむごさに比例して精彩を放つものなのだろう．黒死病蔓延の時代背景を理解するために，以下を薦めておきたい．
・ 蔵持 不三也 『ペストの文化誌 ヨーロッパの民衆文化と疫病』 朝日新聞社〈朝日選書〉，1995年．
・ ジョン・ケリー（著），野中 邦子（訳） 『黒死病 ペストの中世史』 中央公論新社，2008年．
・ ウィリアム・H・マクニール（著），佐々木 昭夫（訳） 『疫病と世界史 上・下』 中央公論新社〈中公文庫〉，2007年．
・ 村上 陽一郎 『ペスト大流行 --- ヨーロッパ中世の崩壊 ---』 岩波書店〈岩波新書〉，1983年．
昨日の記事「#2928. 古英語で「創世記」11:1--9 （「バベルの塔」）を読む」 ([2017-05-03-1]) で「バベルの塔」の古英語版を読んだが，「#1870. 「創世記」2:18--25 を7ヴァージョンで読み比べ」 ([2014-06-10-1]) にならって中英語以降のテキストも含めた7ヴァージョンを並べてみた．(1), (2), (3), (4), (7) の5つは寺澤先生の著書の第8章より，(5), (6) は聖書サイトより持ってきた現代英語版である．
(1) 1000年頃の古英語訳 Old English Heptateuch より．
Wæs þā ān gereord on eorþan, and heora ealre ān sprǣc. Hī fērdon fram ēastdēle oð þæt hī cōmon tō ānum felde on þām lande Sennar, and þēr wunedon. Ðā cwǣdon hī him betwȳnan, “Vton wyrcean ūs tigelan and ǣlan hī on fȳre.” Witodlīce hī hæfdon tigelan for stān and tyrwan for weall-līm. And cwǣdon, “Cumað and utan wircan ūs āne burh and ǣnne stȳpel swā hēahne ðæt his rōf ātille þā heofonan, and uton mǣrsian ūrne namon, ǣr þan wē bēon tōdǣlede tō eallum landum.” God þā nyþer āstāh, þæt hē gesēga þā burh and þone stȳpel þe Adames sunus getimbroden. God cwæð þā, “Efne þis his ān folc and gereord him ealum, and hī ongunnon þis tō wircenne; ne hī ne geswīcað heora geþōhta, ǣr þan þe hī mid weorce hī gefyllan. Cumað nū eornostlīce and uton niþer āstīgan and heora gereord þēr tōwendon, þæt heora nān ne tōcnāwe his nēxtan stemne.” And God þā hī tōdǣlde swā of þǣre stōwe tō eallum landum, and hī geswicon tō wyrcenne þā buruh. And for þī wæs sēo burh gehāten Babel, for þan þe ðǣr wæs tōdǣled þæt gereord ealre eorþan. God þā hī sende þanon ofer brādnesse ealra eorðan.
(2) 1388--95年の Wycliffite Bible (Later Version) より．
Forsothe the lond was of o langage, and of the same speche. And whanne thei ȝeden forth fro the eest, they fonden a feeld in the lond of Sennaar, and dwelliden ther ynne. And oon seide to his neiȝbore, "Come ȝe, and make we tiel stonys, and bake we tho with fier," and thei hadden tiel for stonus, and pitche for morter; and seiden, "Come ȝe, and make we to vs a citee and tour, whos hiȝnesse stretche `til to heuene; and make we solempne oure name bifor that we be departid in to alle londis." Forsothe the Lord cam down to se the citee and tour, which the sones of Adam bildiden. And he seide, "Lo! the puple is oon, and o langage is to alle, and thei han bigunne to make this, nethir thei schulen ceesse of her thouȝtis, til thei fillen tho in werk; therfor come ȝe, go we doun, and scheende we there the tunge of hem, that ech man here not the voys of his neiȝbore." And so the Lord departide hem fro that place in to alle londis; and thei cessiden to bielde a cytee. And therfor the name therof was clepid Babel, for the langage of al erthe was confoundide there; and fro thennus the Lord scaterede hem on the face of alle cuntrees.
(3) 1611年の The Authorised Version (The King James Version）より．
And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speach. And it came to passe as they iourneyed from the East, that they found a plaine in the land of Shinar, and they dwelt there. And they sayd one to another; Goe to, let vs make bricke, and burne them thorowly. And they had bricke for stone, and slime had they for morter. And they said; Goe to, let vs build vs a city and a tower, whose top may reach vnto heauen, and let vs make vs a name, lest we be scattered abroad vpon the face of the whole earth. And the LORD came downe to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded. And the LORD said; Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language: and this they begin to doe: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they haue imagined to doe. Goed to, let vs go downe, and there cōfound their language, that they may not vnderstand one anothers speech. So the LORD scattered them abroad from thence, vpon the face of all the earth: and they left off to build the Citie. Therefore is the name of it called Babel, because the LORD did there confound the language of all the earth: and from thence did the LORD scatter them abroad vpon the face of all the earth.
(4) 1989年の The New Revised Standard Version より．
Now the whole earth had one language and the same words. And as they migrated from the east, they came upon a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there. And they said to one another, "Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly." And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar. Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves; otherwise we shall be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth." The Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which mortals had built. And the Lord said, "Look, they are one people, and they have all one language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. Come, let us go down, and confuse their language there, so that they will not understand one another's speech." So the Lord scattered them abroad from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. Therefore it was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth; and from there the Lord scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.
(5) 基礎語彙のみを用いた Basic English（The Holy Bible --- Bible in Basic English) より．
And all the earth had one language and one tongue. And it came about that in their wandering from the east, they came to a stretch of flat country in the land of Shinar, and there they made their living-place. And they said one to another, Come, let us make bricks, burning them well. And they had bricks for stone, putting them together with sticky earth. And they said, Come, let us make a town, and a tower whose top will go up as high as heaven; and let us make a great name for ourselves, so that we may not be wanderers over the face of the earth. And the Lord came down to see the town and the tower which the children of men were building. And the Lord said, See, they are all one people and have all one language; and this is only the start of what they may do: and now it will not be possible to keep them from any purpose of theirs. Come, let us go down and take away the sense of their language, so that they will not be able to make themselves clear to one another. So the Lord God sent them away into every part of the earth: and they gave up building their town. So it was named Babel, because there the Lord took away the sense of all languages and from there the Lord sent them away over all the face of the earth.
(6) 平易な米口語訳 Good News Translation (BibleGateway.com) より．
At first, the people of the whole world had only one language and used the same words. As they wandered about in the East, they came to a plain in Babylonia and settled there. They said to one another, "Come on! Let's make bricks and bake them hard." So they had bricks to build with and tar to hold them together. They said, "Now let's build a city with a tower that reaches the sky, so that we can make a name for ourselves and not be scattered all over the earth." Then the Lord came down to see the city and the tower which they had built, and he said, "Now then, these are all one people and they speak one language; this is just the beginning of what they are going to do. Soon they will be able to do anything they want! Let us go down and mix up their language so that they will not understand each other." So the Lord scattered them all over the earth, and they stopped building the city. The city was called Babylon, because there the Lord mixed up the language of all the people, and from there he scattered them all over the earth.
(7) 新共同訳より．
世界中は同じ言葉を使って，同じように話していた．東の方から移動してきた人々は，シンアルの地に平野を見つけ，そこに住み着いた．彼らは，「れんがを作り，それをよく焼こう」と話し合った．石の代わりにれんがを，しっくいの代わりにアスファルトを用いた．彼らは，「さあ，天まで届く塔のある町を建て，有名になろう．そして，全地に散らされることのないようにしよう」と言った．主は降って来て，人の子らが建てた，塔のあるこの町を見て，言われた．「彼らは一つの民で，皆一つの言葉を話しているから，このようなことをし始めたのだ．これでは，彼らが何を企てても，妨げることはできない．我々は降って行って，直ちに彼らの言葉を混乱させ，互いの言葉が聞き分けられぬようにしてしまおう．」主は彼らをそこから全地に散らされたので，彼らはこの町の建設をやめた．こういうわけで，この町の名はバベルと呼ばれた．主がそこで全地の言葉を混乱（バラル）させ，また，主がそこから彼らを全地に散らされたからである．
・ 寺澤 盾 『聖書でたどる英語の歴史』 大修館書店，2013年．
昨日の記事「#2928. 古英語で「創世記」11:1--9 （「バベルの塔」）を読む」 ([2017-05-03-1]) で「バベルの塔」の古英語版を読んだが，「#1870. 「創世記」2:18--25 を7ヴァージョンで読み比べ」 ([2014-06-10-1]) にならって中英語以降のテキストも含めた7ヴァージョンを並べてみた．(1), (2), (3), (4), (7) の5つは寺澤先生の著書の第8章より，(5), (6) は聖書サイトより持ってきた現代英語版である．
(1) 1000年頃の古英語訳 Old English Heptateuch より．
Wæs þā ān gereord on eorþan, and heora ealre ān sprǣc. Hī fērdon fram ēastdēle oð þæt hī cōmon tō ānum felde on þām lande Sennar, and þēr wunedon. Ðā cwǣdon hī him betwȳnan, “Vton wyrcean ūs tigelan and ǣlan hī on fȳre.” Witodlīce hī hæfdon tigelan for stān and tyrwan for weall-līm. And cwǣdon, “Cumað and utan wircan ūs āne burh and ǣnne stȳpel swā hēahne ðæt his rōf ātille þā heofonan, and uton mǣrsian ūrne namon, ǣr þan wē bēon tōdǣlede tō eallum landum.” God þā nyþer āstāh, þæt hē gesēga þā burh and þone stȳpel þe Adames sunus getimbroden. God cwæð þā, “Efne þis his ān folc and gereord him ealum, and hī ongunnon þis tō wircenne; ne hī ne geswīcað heora geþōhta, ǣr þan þe hī mid weorce hī gefyllan. Cumað nū eornostlīce and uton niþer āstīgan and heora gereord þēr tōwendon, þæt heora nān ne tōcnāwe his nēxtan stemne.” And God þā hī tōdǣlde swā of þǣre stōwe tō eallum landum, and hī geswicon tō wyrcenne þā buruh. And for þī wæs sēo burh gehāten Babel, for þan þe ðǣr wæs tōdǣled þæt gereord ealre eorþan. God þā hī sende þanon ofer brādnesse ealra eorðan.
(2) 1388--95年の Wycliffite Bible (Later Version) より．
Forsothe the lond was of o langage, and of the same speche. And whanne thei ȝeden forth fro the eest, they fonden a feeld in the lond of Sennaar, and dwelliden ther ynne. And oon seide to his neiȝbore, "Come ȝe, and make we tiel stonys, and bake we tho with fier," and thei hadden tiel for stonus, and pitche for morter; and seiden, "Come ȝe, and make we to vs a citee and tour, whos hiȝnesse stretche `til to heuene; and make we solempne oure name bifor that we be departid in to alle londis." Forsothe the Lord cam down to se the citee and tour, which the sones of Adam bildiden. And he seide, "Lo! the puple is oon, and o langage is to alle, and thei han bigunne to make this, nethir thei schulen ceesse of her thouȝtis, til thei fillen tho in werk; therfor come ȝe, go we doun, and scheende we there the tunge of hem, that ech man here not the voys of his neiȝbore." And so the Lord departide hem fro that place in to alle londis; and thei cessiden to bielde a cytee. And therfor the name therof was clepid Babel, for the langage of al erthe was confoundide there; and fro thennus the Lord scaterede hem on the face of alle cuntrees.
(3) 1611年の The Authorised Version (The King James Version）より．
And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speach. And it came to passe as they iourneyed from the East, that they found a plaine in the land of Shinar, and they dwelt there. And they sayd one to another; Goe to, let vs make bricke, and burne them thorowly. And they had bricke for stone, and slime had they for morter. And they said; Goe to, let vs build vs a city and a tower, whose top may reach vnto heauen, and let vs make vs a name, lest we be scattered abroad vpon the face of the whole earth. And the LORD came downe to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded. And the LORD said; Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language: and this they begin to doe: and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they haue imagined to doe. Goed to, let vs go downe, and there cōfound their language, that they may not vnderstand one anothers speech. So the LORD scattered them abroad from thence, vpon the face of all the earth: and they left off to build the Citie. Therefore is the name of it called Babel, because the LORD did there confound the language of all the earth: and from thence did the LORD scatter them abroad vpon the face of all the earth.
(4) 1989年の The New Revised Standard Version より．
Now the whole earth had one language and the same words. And as they migrated from the east, they came upon a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there. And they said to one another, "Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly." And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar. Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves; otherwise we shall be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth." The Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which mortals had built. And the Lord said, "Look, they are one people, and they have all one language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. Come, let us go down, and confuse their language there, so that they will not understand one another's speech." So the Lord scattered them abroad from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. Therefore it was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth; and from there the Lord scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.
(5) 基礎語彙のみを用いた Basic English（The Holy Bible --- Bible in Basic English) より．
And all the earth had one language and one tongue. And it came about that in their wandering from the east, they came to a stretch of flat country in the land of Shinar, and there they made their living-place. And they said one to another, Come, let us make bricks, burning them well. And they had bricks for stone, putting them together with sticky earth. And they said, Come, let us make a town, and a tower whose top will go up as high as heaven; and let us make a great name for ourselves, so that we may not be wanderers over the face of the earth. And the Lord came down to see the town and the tower which the children of men were building. And the Lord said, See, they are all one people and have all one language; and this is only the start of what they may do: and now it will not be possible to keep them from any purpose of theirs. Come, let us go down and take away the sense of their language, so that they will not be able to make themselves clear to one another. So the Lord God sent them away into every part of the earth: and they gave up building their town. So it was named Babel, because there the Lord took away the sense of all languages and from there the Lord sent them away over all the face of the earth.
(6) 平易な米口語訳 Good News Translation (BibleGateway.com) より．
At first, the people of the whole world had only one language and used the same words. As they wandered about in the East, they came to a plain in Babylonia and settled there. They said to one another, "Come on! Let's make bricks and bake them hard." So they had bricks to build with and tar to hold them together. They said, "Now let's build a city with a tower that reaches the sky, so that we can make a name for ourselves and not be scattered all over the earth." Then the Lord came down to see the city and the tower which they had built, and he said, "Now then, these are all one people and they speak one language; this is just the beginning of what they are going to do. Soon they will be able to do anything they want! Let us go down and mix up their language so that they will not understand each other." So the Lord scattered them all over the earth, and they stopped building the city. The city was called Babylon, because there the Lord mixed up the language of all the people, and from there he scattered them all over the earth.
(7) 新共同訳より．
世界中は同じ言葉を使って，同じように話していた．東の方から移動してきた人々は，シンアルの地に平野を見つけ，そこに住み着いた．彼らは，「れんがを作り，それをよく焼こう」と話し合った．石の代わりにれんがを，しっくいの代わりにアスファルトを用いた．彼らは，「さあ，天まで届く塔のある町を建て，有名になろう．そして，全地に散らされることのないようにしよう」と言った．主は降って来て，人の子らが建てた，塔のあるこの町を見て，言われた．「彼らは一つの民で，皆一つの言葉を話しているから，このようなことをし始めたのだ．これでは，彼らが何を企てても，妨げることはできない．我々は降って行って，直ちに彼らの言葉を混乱させ，互いの言葉が聞き分けられぬようにしてしまおう．」主は彼らをそこから全地に散らされたので，彼らはこの町の建設をやめた．こういうわけで，この町の名はバベルと呼ばれた．主がそこで全地の言葉を混乱（バラル）させ，また，主がそこから彼らを全地に散らされたからである．
・ 寺澤 盾 『聖書でたどる英語の歴史』 大修館書店，2013年．
東京都美術館でブリューゲル「バベルの塔」展が開かれている．24年ぶりの来日だそうで，たいへん盛り上がっている．
「バベルの塔」 (The Tower of Babel) の話は「創世記」11:1--9 に記されている．この世に様々な言語が存在することを「聖書なりに」説明づけた箇所とされ，言語起源論においてもしばしば引き合いに出される，極めて著名なくだりである．
今回は，「バベルの塔」の古英語の文章を，寺澤盾先生の『聖書でたどる英語の歴史』第8章から，Old English Heptateuch 版によって示そう．
Wæs þā ān gereord on eorþan, and heora ealre ān sprǣc. Hī fērdon fram ēastdēle oð þæt hī cōmon tō ānum felde on þām lande Sennar, and þēr wunedon. Ðā cwǣdon hī him betwȳnan, “Vton wyrcean ūs tigelan and ǣlan hī on fȳre.” Witodlīce hī hæfdon tigelan for stān and tyrwan for weall-līm. And cwǣdon, “Cumað and utan wircan ūs āne burh and ǣnne stȳpel swā hēahne ðæt his rōf ātille þā heofonan, and uton mǣrsian ūrne namon, ǣr þan wē bēon tōdǣlede tō eallum landum.” God þā nyþer āstāh, þæt hē gesēga þā burh and þone stȳpel þe Adames sunus getimbroden. God cwæð þā, “Efne þis his ān folc and gereord him ealum, and hī ongunnon þis tō wircenne; ne hī ne geswīcað heora geþōhta, ǣr þan þe hī mid weorce hī gefyllan. Cumað nū eornostlīce and uton niþer āstīgan and heora gereord þēr tōwendon, þæt heora nān ne tōcnāwe his nēxtan stemne.” And God þā hī tōdǣlde swā of þǣre stōwe tō eallum landum, and hī geswicon tō wyrcenne þā buruh. And for þī wæs sēo burh gehāten Babel, for þan þe ðǣr wæs tōdǣled þæt gereord ealre eorþan. God þā hī sende þanon ofer brādnesse ealra eorðan.
・ 寺澤 盾 『聖書でたどる英語の歴史』 大修館書店，2013年．
「#2893. Beowulf の冒頭11行」 ([2017-03-29-1]) で挙げた11行では物足りなく思われたので，有名な舟棺葬 (ship burial) の記述も含めた Beowulf 冒頭の52行を引用したい．舟棺葬とは，6--11世紀にスカンディナヴィアとアングロサクソンの文化で見られた高位者の葬法である．
原文は Jack 版で．現代英語訳は Norton Anthology に収録されているアイルランドのノーベル文学賞受賞詩人 Seamus Heaney の版でお届けする．
| OE | PDE translation | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| a-verse | b-verse | ||
| Hwæt, wē Gār-Dena | in geārdagum, | So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by | |
| þēodcyninga | þrym gefrūnon, | and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness. | |
| hū ðā æþelingas | ellen fremedon. | We have heard of those princes' heroic campaigns. | |
| Oft Scyld Scēfing | sceaþena þrēatum, | There was Shield Sheafson, scourge of many tribes, | |
| 5 | monegum mǣgþum | meodosetla oftēah, | a wrecker of mead-benches, rampaging among foes. |
| egsode eorl[as], | syððan ǣrest wearð | This terror of the hall-troops had come far. | |
| fēasceaft funden; | hē þæs frōfre gebād, | A foundling to start with, he would flourish later on | |
| wēox under wolcnum, | weorðmyndum þāh, | as his powers waxed and his worth was proved. | |
| oðþæt him ǣghwylc þ[ǣr] | ymbsittendra | In the end each clan on the outlying coasts | |
| 10 | ofer hronrāde | hȳran scolde, | beyond the whale-road had to yield to him |
| gomban gyldan. | Þæt wæs gōd cyning! | and begin to pay tribute. That was one good king. | |
| Ðǣm eafera wæs | æfter cenned | Afterward a boy-child was born to Shield, | |
| geong in geardum, | þone God sende | a cub in the yard, a comfort sent | |
| folce tō frōfre; | fyrenðearfe ongeat | by God to that nation. Hew knew what they had tholed, | |
| 15 | þ[e] hīe ǣr drugon | aldor[lē]ase | the long times and troubles they'd come through |
| lange hwīle. | Him þæs Līffrēa, | without a leader; so the Lord of Life, | |
| wuldres Wealdend | woroldāre forgeaf; | the glorious Almighty, made this man renowned. | |
| Bēowulf wæs brēme | ---blǣd wīde sprang--- | Shield had fathered a famous son: | |
| Scyldes eafera | Scedelandum in. | Beow's name was known through the north. | |
| 20 | Swā sceal [geong g]uma | gōde gewyrcean, | And a young prince must be prudent like that, |
| fromum feohgiftum | on fæder [bea]rme, | giving freely while his father lives | |
| þæt hine on ylde | eft gewunigen | so that afterward in age when fighting starts | |
| wilgesīþas | þonne wīg cume, | steadfast companions will stand by him | |
| lēode gelǣsten; | lofdǣdum sceal | and hold the line. Behavior that's admired | |
| 25 | in mǣgþa gehwǣre | man geþēon. | is the path to power among people everywhere. |
| Him ðā Scyld gewāt | tō gescæphwīle, | Shield was still thriving when his time came | |
| felahrōr fēran | on Frēan wǣre. | and he crossed over into the Lord's keeping. | |
| Hī hyne þā ætbǣron | tō brimes faroðe, | His warrior band did what he bade them | |
| swǣse gesīþas, | swā hē selfa bæd, | when he laid down the law among the Danes: | |
| 30 | þenden wordum wēold | wine Scyldinga; | they shouldered him out to the sea's flood, |
| lēof landfruma | lange āhte. | the chief they revered who had long ruled them. | |
| Þǣr æt hȳðe stōd | hringedstefna | A ring-whorled prow rode in the harbor, | |
| īsig ond ūtfūs, | æþelinges fær; | ice-clad, outbound, a craft for a prince. | |
| ālēdon þā | lēofne þēoden, | They stretched their beloved lord in his boat, | |
| 35 | bēaga bryttan | on bearm scipes, | laid out by the mast, amidships, |
| mǣrne be mæste. | Þǣr wæs mādma fela | the great ring-giver. Far-fetched treasures | |
| of feorwegum, | frætwa gelǣded; | were piled upon him, and precious gear. | |
| ne hȳrde ic cȳmlīcor | cēol gegyrwan | I never heard before of a ship so well furbished | |
| hildewǣpnum | ond heaðowǣdum, | with battle-tackle, bladed weapons | |
| 40 | billum ond byrnum; | him on bearme læg | and coats of mail. The massed treasure |
| mādma mænigo, | þā him mid scoldon | was loaded on top of him: it would travel far | |
| on flōdes ǣht | feor gewītan. | on out into the ocean's sway. | |
| Nalæs hī hine lǣssan | lācum tēodan, | They decked his body no less bountifully | |
| þēodgestrēonum, | þon þā dydon | with offerings than those first ones did | |
| 45 | þe hine æt frumsceafte | forð onsendon | who cast him away when he was a child |
| ǣnne ofer ȳðe | umborwesende. | and launched him alone out over the waves. | |
| Þā gȳt hie him āsetton | segen g[yl]denne | And they set a gold standard up | |
| hēah ofer hēafod, | lēton holm beran, | high above his head and let him drift | |
| gēafon on gārsecg. | Him wæs geōmor sefa, | to wind and tide, bewailing him | |
| 50 | murnende mōd. | Men ne cunnon | and mourning their loss. No man can tell, |
| secgan tō sōðe, | selerǣden[d]e, | no wise man in hall or weathered veteran | |
| hæleð under heofenum, | hwā þǣm hlæste onfēng. | knows for certain who salvaged that load. | |
Ælfric の説教集の第3弾とされる The Lives of the Saints は，998年までに書かれたとされる．そのなかから Life of King Oswald の冒頭部分をサンプル・テキストとして取り上げよう．King Oswald は633--641年にノーサンブリアを治めた王で，その子孫とともに十字架を篤く崇拝した者として知られている．ルーン文字の刻まれたノーサンブリアの有名な Ruthwell Cross も，そのような十字架崇拝の伝統の所産だろう．
Ælfric の説教集は多くの写本で現存しているが，以下の Smith 版テキストは，MS London, British Library Cotton Julius E.vii のものである．現代英語訳も付けて示す (Smith 132--33) ．
Æfter ðan ðe Augustīnus tō Engla lande becōm, wæs sum æðele cyning, Oswold gehāten, on Norðhumbra lande, gelȳfed swyþe on God. Sē fērde on his iugoðe fram his frēondum and māgum tō Scotlande on sǣ, and þǣr sōna wearð gefullod, and his gefēran samod þe mid him sīðedon. Betwux þām wearð ofslagen Eadwine his ēam, Norðhumbra cynincg, on Crīst gelȳfed, fram Brytta cyninge, Ceadwalla gecīged, and twēgen his æftergengan binnan twām gēarum; and se Ceadwalla slōh and tō sceame tūcode þā Norðhumbran lēode æfter heora hlāfordes fylle, oð þæt Oswold se ēadiga his yfelnysse ādwǣscte. Oswold him cōm tō, and him cēnlīce wið feaht mid lȳtlum werode, ac his gelēafa hine getrymde, and Crīst gefylste tō his fēonda slege. Oswold þā ærǣrde āne rōde sōna Gode tō wurðmynte, ǣr þan þe hē tō ðām gewinne cōme, and clypode tō his gefērum:`Uton feallan tō ðǣre rōde, and þone Ælmihtigan biddan þæt hē ūs āhredde wið þone mōdigan fēond þe ūs āfyllan wile. God sylf wāt geare þæt wē winnað rihtlīce wið þysne rēðan cyning tō āhreddenne ūre lēode.' Hī fēollon þā ealle mid Oswolde cyninge on gebedum; and syþþan on ǣrne mergen ēodon tō þām gefeohte, and gewunnon þǣr sige, swā swā se Eallwealdend heom ūðe for Oswoldes gelēafan; and ālēdon heora fȳnd, þone mōdigan Cedwallan mid his micclan werode, þe wēnde þaet him ne mihte nān werod wiðstandan.
After Augustine came to England, there was a certain noble king, called Oswald, in the land of the Northumbrians, who believed very much in God. He travelled in his youth from his friends and kinsmen to Dalriada ("Scotland in sea"), and there at once was baptised, and his companions also who travelled with him. meanwhile his uncle Edwin, king of the Northumbrians, who believed in Christ, was slain by the king of the Britons, named Ceadwalla, as were two of his successors within two years; and that Ceadwalla slew and humiliated the Northumbrian people after the death of their lord, until Oswald the blessed put an end to his evil-doing. Oswald came to him, and fought with him boldly with a small troop, but his faith strengthened him, and Christ assisted in the slaying of his enemies. Oswald then immediately raised up a cross in honour of God, before he came to the battle, and called to his companions: "Let us kneel to the cross, and pray to the Almighty that he rid us from the proud enemy who wishes to destroy us. God himself knows well that we strive rightly against this cruel king in order to redeem our people." They then all knelt with King Oswald in prayers; and then early on the morrow they went to the fight, and gained victory there, just as the All-powerful granted them because of Oswald's faith; and they laid low their enemies, the proud Ceadwalla with his great troop, who believed that no troop could withstand him.
・ Smith, Jeremy J. Old English: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
何回目かになる，古英語のテキストとその現代英語訳を挙げるシリーズ（oe_text) ．今回は，The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle のE写本，いわゆる Peterborough Chronicle からのテキストで，ブリテン島の地理，民族，言語，歴史が述べられている部分を抜粋する．初学者用に綴字の標準化された市川・松浪版 (86--89) より，現代英語訳も合わせて示そう．
Brytene īeȝland is eahta hund mīla lang, and twā hund mīla brād. And hēr sind on þȳs īeȝlande fīf ȝeþēodu: Englisc, and Brytwilisc, and Scyttisc, and Pyhtisc, and Bōclæden. Ǣrest wǣron būend þisses landes Bryttas; þā cōmon of Armenia, and ȝesǣton sūðewearde Brytene ǣrest. Þā ȝelamp hit þæt Pyhtas cōmon sūþan of Scithian, mid langum scipum, nā manigum. And þā cōmon ǣrest on Norþ-Ibernia ūp, and þǣr bǣdon Scottas þæt hīe ðǣr mōsten wunian. Ac hīe noldon him līefan, for ðǣm hīe cwǣdon þæt hīe ne mihten ealle ætgædere ȝewunian þǣr. And þā cwǣdon þā Scottas, `Wē ēow magon þēah hwæðere rǣd ȝelǣran, wē witon ōþer īeȝland hēr bē ēastan, þǣr ȝē magon eardian ȝif ȝē willað, and ȝif hwā ēow wiðstent, wē ēow fultumiað þæt ȝē hit mæȝen ȝegān.'
ðā fērdon þā Pyhtas, and ȝefērdon þis land norþanweard, and sūþanweard hit hæfdon Bryttas, swā wē ǣr cwǣdon. And þā Pyhtas him ābǣdon wīf æt Scottas, on þā ȝerād þæt hīe ȝecuren hiera cynecynn ā on þā wīfhealfe. Þæt hīe hēoldon swā lange siððan. And þā ȝelamp hit ymbe ȝēara ryne þæt Scotta sum dǣl ȝewāt of Ibernian on Brytene, and þæs landes sumne dǣl ȝeēodon. And wæs hiera heretoga Reoda ȝehāten, from þǣm hie sind ȝenemnode Dǣl Reodi.
The island of Britain is eight hundred miles long, and two hundred miles broad. And here in this island are five languages: English, British, Pictish, and Latin. At first the inhabitants of this island were Britons; they came from Armenia, and first occupied Britain in the south (i.e. the southern part of Britain). Then it happened that the Picts came from the south from Scythia, with warships, not many. And they first landed in North Ireland, and there begged the Scots that they might dwell there. But they (= the Scots) would not allow them, because they said that they could not live there all together. And then the Scots said, `We can, however, give you advice: we know another island to the east from here, where you can dwell, if you wish; and if anyone resists you, we will help you that you may conquer it.'
Then the Picts went away, and conquered the northern part of this land, and the Britons had the southern part of it, as we have said before. And the Picts asked wives for them from the Scots, on the conditions that they should choose their royal line always on the female side. They kept it for a long time. And it happened then, in the course of years, that some portion of the Scots departed from Ireland to Britain, and conquered some part of the land, And their leader was called Reoda; from him they are named (the people) of Dal Rialda.
・ 市河 三喜，松浪 有 『古英語・中英語初歩』 研究社，1986年．
「#2895. 古英語聖書より「岩の上に家を建てる」」 ([2017-03-31-1]) に引き続き，新約聖書を古英語訳で読んでみよう．今回は，同じくよく知られた Matthew 13: 3--8 の「種をまく人の寓話」を紹介する．市川・松浪 (84--86) より，現代英語訳も付して示す．
Sōþlīċe ūt ēode se sāwere his sǣd tō sāwenne. And þā þā hē sēow, sumu hīe fēollon wiþ weȝ, and fuglas cōmon and ǣton þā. Sōþlīċe sumu fēollon on stǣnihte, þǣr hit næfde miċle eorþan, and hrædlīċe ūp sprungon, for þǣm þe hīe næfdon þāre eorþen dēopan; sōþlīċe, ūp sprungenre sunnan, hīe ādrūgodon and forscruncon, for þǣm þe hīe næfdon wyrtruman. Sōþlīċe sumu fēollon on þornas, and þā þornas wēoxon, and forþrysmdon þā. Sumu sōþlīċe fēollon on gōde eorþan, and sealdon wæstm, sum hundfealdne, sum siextiȝfealdne, sum þrītiȝfealdne.
Truly the sower went out to sow his seeds. And while he was sowing, some of them fell along the way, and birds came and ate them. Truly some fell on stony ground where it had not much earth, and quickly sprang up, because they had not any deep earth; truly, the sun (being) risen up, they dried up and shrank up, because they had not roots. Truly some fell on thorns, and the thorns grew, and choked them. Some truly fell on good ground, and gave fruit, some hundredfold, some sixtyfold, (and) some thirtyfold.
・ 市河 三喜，松浪 有 『古英語・中英語初歩』 研究社，1986年．
代表的アメリカ人といわれる Benjamin Franklin (1706--90) による The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (1818) は，世界で最も有名な自伝の1つである．そのなかで紹介されている実践すべし「13徳」とその教訓を原文より掲げる．
1. Temperance.
Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation.
2. Silence.
Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation.
3. Order.
Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time.
4. Resolution.
Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve.
5. Frugality.
Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing.
6. Industry.
Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions.
7. Sincerity.
Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.
8. Justice.
Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty.
9. Moderation.
Avoid extreams; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.
10. Cleanliness.
Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, cloaths, or habitation.
11. Tranquillity.
Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.
12. Chastity.
Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dulness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation.
13. Humility.
Imitate Jesus and Socrates.
松本・西川による岩波文庫の翻訳 (157--59) では，それぞれ次のような日本語となっている．
第一 節制 飽くほど食うなかれ．酔うまで飲むなかれ．
第二 沈黙 自他に益なきことを語るなかれ．駄弁を弄するなかれ．
第三 規律 物はすべて所を定めて置くべし．仕事はすべて時を定めてなすべし．
第四 決断 なすべきことをなさんと決心すべし．決心したることは必ず実行すべし．
第五 節約 自他に益なきことに金銭を費やすなかれ．すなわち，浪費するなかれ．
第六 勤勉 時間を空費するなかれ．つねに何か益あることに従うべし．無用の行いはすべて断つべし．
第七 誠実 詐りを用いて人を害するなかれ．心事は無邪気に公正に保つべし．口に出だすこともまた然るべし．
第八 正義 他人の利益を傷つけ，あるいは与うべきを与えずして人に損害を及ぼすべからず．
第九 中庸 極端を避くべし．たとえ不法を受け，憤りに値すと思うとも，激怒を慎しむべし．
第十 清潔 身体，衣服，住居に不潔を黙認すべからず．
第十一 平静 小事，日常茶飯事，または避けがたき出来事に平静を失うなかれ．
第十二 純潔 性交はもっぱら健康ないし子孫のためにのみ行い，これに耽りて頭脳を鈍らせ，身体を弱め，または自他の平安ないし信用を傷つけるがごときことあるべからず．
第十三 謙譲 イエスおよびソクラテスに見習うべし．
Franklin は第1の徳から順番に身につけてゆくのがよいと説いているが，私にとっては，もう最初の項目からして苦行そのものである．そこで，Temperance の元にある教訓 "Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation." を丹念に解釈・吟味しなければならない．
前半部分は「飽くほど食うなかれ」と訳されているが，ここの dullness は「飽きること，つまらないこと」ではなく，人の「愚鈍さ」を表わすと捉えるべきだろう．というのは，本文にこの徳について以下のような解説があるからだ．
Temperance first, as it tends to procure that coolness and clearness of head, which is so necessary where constant vigilance was to be kept up, and guard maintained against the unremitting attraction of ancient habits, and the force of perpetual temptations.
つまり，"Eat not to dullness" は "Don't eat to be slow in understanding" ほどにパラフレーズされるものとして読む必要がある．
その流れで読むならば，後半部分 "drink not to elevation" も「酔うまで飲むなかれ」では言葉足らずの翻訳のように思われる．前半部分にならい，"Don't drink to be elevated" とパラフレーズされるものとして読んでよいが，この elevation や elevated がどのような状態を指すかがポイントとなる．
「ハイになる」や「メートルが上がる」に近い語感かと直感されたが，あまり自信がない．手近の英英辞典を引いても明確な語感は得られなかったので，OED を調べてみると，動詞 elevate の 7b の語義として，以下のようにあった．
b. spec. of the effects of liquor. Now humorous or slang.
a1704 T. Brown Lett. from Dead (new ed.) in Wks. (1707) II. ii. 87 We were all elevated above the use of our Legs as well as our Reason.
1763 Brit. Mag. 4 372, I, being elevated with liquor.
1816 'Quiz' Grand Master viii. 230 But with the jumping-powder heated, He got completely---elevated.
1843 Dickens Martin Chuzzlewit (1844) ix. 112 His depth of feeling is misunderstood. He is supposed to be a little elevated; and nobody heeds him.
1つ目の例文からは，elevated が「理性をなくすほどに」酩酊した状態を指しているように読める．通常の語義では，elevated は "having a high moral or intellectual level" (OALD8) や "having an intelligent and usually formal tone or quality" (MWALED) のように，むしろ「理性や知性のレベルが高い」状態を指すのだから，その反対の意味で elevated が用いられているとすれば，確かに OED のレーベルに示されている通り "humorous or slang" の含意が伴うということは頷ける．前半部分の「愚鈍」との対句的な関係を考えれば，後半部分も「理性・知性をなくすほどに」と捉えるのが自然だろう．参考までに，Johnson の辞書でも，To elevate には，飲酒に関する言い方とは限定していないものの，"To elate the mind with vicious pride" という否定的な語義が与えられている．
以上，後半部分の解釈をまとめれば，「飲んでもよい．しかし，理性的に物を考えられなくなるほどまでに飲むのはよくない．」となろうか．以上，酒飲みフィロロジストの自己弁護のための解釈でした．
・ 松本 慎一，西川 正身（訳） 『フランクリン自伝』 岩波書店，1957年．
古英語末期を代表する散文作家 Ælfric (955--1010) は，標準的な West-Saxon 方言で多くの文章を残した．今回は，Catholic Homilies の第2集に収められた，Pope Gregory のイングランド伝道に対する熱い想いを綴った，有名なテキストを紹介しよう．市川・松浪のエディション (105--10) の POPE GREGORY より，古英語テキストと現代英語訳を示す．
Þā underȝeat se pāpa þe on ðām tīman þæt apostoliċe setl ȝesæt, hū sē ēadiga Grēgōrius on hālgum mæȝnum ðēonde wæs, and hē ðā hine of ðǣre munuclican drohtnunge ȝenam, and him tō ȝefylstan ȝesette, on diaconhāde ȝeendebyrdne. Ðā ȝelāmp hit æt sumum sǣle, swā swā ȝȳt foroft dēð, þæt englisce ċȳpmenn brōhton heora ware tō Rōmāna byriȝ, and Gregorius ēode be ðǣre strǣt tō ðām engliscum mannum heora ðing scēawiȝende. Þā ȝeseah hē betwux ðām warum, ċȳpecnihtas ȝesette, þā wǣron hwītes līchaman and fæȝeres andwlitan menn, and æðelīċe ȝefexode.
Grēgōrius ðā behēold þǣra cnapena wlite, and befrān of hwilċere þēode hī ȝebrohte wǣron. Þā sǣde him man þæt hī of engla lande wǣron, and þæt ðǣre ðēode mennisc swā wlitiȝ wǣre. Eft ðā Grēgōrius befrān, hwæðer þæs landes folc cristen wǣre ðe hǣðen. Him man sǣde þæt hī hǣðene wǣron. Grēgōrius ðā of innweardre heortan langsume siċċetunge tēah, and cwæð: “Wā lā wā, þæt swa fæȝeres hīwes menn sindon ðām sweartan dēofle underðēodde.” Eft hē āxode hū ðǣre ðēode nama wǣre, þe hī of comon. Him wæs ȝeandwyrd þæt hī Angle ȝenemnode wǣron. Þā cwæð hē: “rihtlīċe hī sind Angle ȝehātene, for ðan ðe hī engla wlite habbað, and swilcum ȝedafenað þæt hī on heofonum engla ȝefēran bēon.” Gȳt ðā Grēgōrius befrān, hū ðǣre scīre nama wǣre, þe ðā cnapan of ālǣdde wæron. Him man sǣde þæt ðā scīrmen wǣron Dēre ȝehātene. Grēgōrius andwyrde: “Wel hī sind Dēre ȝehātene. for ðan ðe hī sind fram graman ȝenerode, and tō cristes mildheortnysse ȝecȳȝede.” Gȳt ðā hē befrān: “Hū is ðǣre leode cyning ȝehāten?” Him wæs ȝeandswarod þæt se cyning Ælle ȝehāten wǣre. Hwæt, ðā Grēgōrius gamenode mid his wordum to ðām naman, and cwæð: “Hit ȝedafenað þæt alleluia sȳ ȝesungen on ðām lande. tō lofe þæs ælmihtigan scyppendes.”
Grēgōrius ðā sōna ēode tō ðām pāpan þæs apostolican setles, and hine bæd þæt hē Angelcynne sume lārēowas āsende, ðe hī to criste ȝebiȝdon, and cwæð þæt hē sylf ȝearo wǣre þæt weorc tō ȝefremmenne mid godes fultume, ȝif hit ðām pāpan swā ȝelīcode. Þā ne mihte sē pāpa þæt ȝeðafian, þeah ðe hē eall wolde, for ðan ðe ðā rōmāniscan ċeasterȝewaran noldon ȝeðafian þæt swā ȝetoȝen mann and swā ȝeðungen lārēow þā burh eallunge forlēte, and swā fyrlen wræcsīð ȝename.
Then perceived the pope who at that time sat on the apostolic seat, how the blessed Gregory was thriving in the holy troops, and he then picked him up from the monastic condition, and made him (his) helper, (being) ordained to deaconhood. Then it happened at one time (= one day), as it yet very often does, that English merchants brought their wares to the city of Rome, and Gregory went along the street to the English men, looking at their things. Then he saw, among the wares, slaves set. They were men of white body and fair face, and excellently haired.
Gregory then beheld the appearance of those boys, and asked from which country they were brought. Then he was told that they were from England, and that the people of that country were so beautiful. Then again Gregory asked whether the fold of the land was Christian or heathen. They told him that they were heathen. Gregory then drew a long sigh from the depth of (his) heart, and said, 'Alas! that men of so fair appearance are subject to the black devil.' Again he asked how the name of the nation was, where they came from. He was answered that they were named Angles. Then said he, 'rightly they are called Angles, because they have angels' appearance, and it befits such (people) that they should be angels' companions in heavens!' Still Gregory asked how the name of the shire was, from which they were led away. They told him that the shiremen were called Deirians. Gregory answered, 'They are well called Deirians, because they are delivered from ire, and invoked to Christ's mercy.' Still he asked 'How is the king of the people called?' He was answered that the king was called Ælle. What! then Gregory joked with his words to the name, and said, 'It is fitting that Halleluiah be sung in the land, in praise of the Almighty Creator.'
Then Gregory at once went to the pope of the apostolic seat, and entreated him that he should send some preachers to the English, whom they converted to Christ, and said that he himself was ready to perform the work with God's help, if it so pleased the pope. The pope could not permit it, even if he quite desired (it), because the Roman citizens would not consent that such an educated and competent scholar should leave the city completely and take such a distant journey of peril.
なお，この逸話の主人公は後の Gregory I だが，テキスト中で示されている pāpa は当時の Pelagius II を指している．この後，さすがに Gregory が自らイングランドに布教に出かけるというわけにはいかなかったので，後に Augustinus (St Augustine) を送り込んだというわけだ．
この逸話を受けて，渡部とミルワード (50--51) は，英国のキリスト教はダジャレで始まったようなものだと評している．
渡部 若いときにグレゴリーがローマで非常に肌の白い，金髪の奴隷を見ました．で，その奴隷に「おまえはどこから来たのか」ときいたら，「アングル (Angle)」人と答えた．そこでグレゴリーは「おまえはアングル人じゃなくてエンジェル (angel) のようだ」といったというような有名な話があります．
ミルワード そう，有名なシャレです．ですから，ある意味でイギリスのキリスト教史は言葉のシャレから始まると言うことができます．--- Non angli, sed angeli, --- Not Angles, but angels.
渡部 そして，「おまえの国は？」と聞いたら「デイラ (Deira) です」とその奴隷は答えた．すると「〔神の〕怒から (de ira) 救われて，キリストの慈悲に招かれるであろう」とグレゴリーは言ってやった．それから「おまえの王様の名は何か」と聞いたら「エルラ (Ælla) です」と奴隷は答えた．するとグレゴリーはそれをアレルヤとかけて「エルラの国でもアルレルリア (Allelulia) と，神をたたえる言葉が唱えられるようにしよう」と言った有名な話がありますね．本当にジョークで始まったんですね，イギリスの布教は．
（後記 2024/04/13(Sat)：Voicy 「英語の語源が身につくラジオ (heldio)」にて，この1節の "Eft hē āxode . . . ȝefēran bēon." の部分について古英語音読していますのでご参照ください．「#1048. コアリスナーさんたちと古英語音読」です．）
（後記 2024/06/12(Wed)：上記 Voicy で読み上げた部分の写本画像へのリンクです：Catholic Homilies, Second Series, "IX, St Gregory the Great" (MS Ii.1.33, fol. 140v) *
・ 市河 三喜，松浪 有 『古英語・中英語初歩』 研究社，1986年．
・ 渡部 昇一，ピーター・ミルワード 『物語英文学史――ベオウルフからバージニア・ウルフまで』 大修館，1981年．
Bede の古英語訳により，英語史上記念すべき449年の記述 ("The Coming of the English") を市川・松浪編の古英語テキスト（現代英語訳付き）で読んでみよう (pp. 89--94) ．アングロサクソン人は，ブリトン人に誘われた機会に乗じて，いかにしてブリテン島に居座るに至ったのか．
Ðā wæs ymb fēower hund wintra and nigon and fēowertiġ fram ūres Drihtnes menniscnysse þæt Martiānus cāsere rīċe onfēng and vii ġēar hæfde. Sē wæs syxta ēac fēowertigum fram Augusto þām cāsere. Ðā Angelþēod and Seaxna wæs ġelaðod fram þām foresprecenan cyninge, and on Breotone cōm on þrim miċlum scipum, and on ēastdæle þyses ēalondes eardungstōwe onfēng þurh ðæs ylcan cyninges bebode, þe hī hider ġelaðode, þæt hī sceoldan for heora ēðle compian and fohtan. And hī sōna compedon wið heora ġewinnan, þe hī oft ǣr norðan onherġedon; and Seaxan þā siġe e ġeslōgan. Þā sendan hī hām ǣrendracan and hēton secgan þysses landes wæstmbǣrnysse and Brytta yrgþo. And hī sōna hider sendon māran sciphere strengran wiġena; and wæs unoferswīðendliċ weorud,þā hī tōgædere ġeþēodde wǣron. And him Bryttas sealdan and ġēafan eardungstōwe betwih him, þæt hī for sibbe and for hǣlo heora ēðles campodon and wunnon wið heora fēondum, and hī him andlyfne and āre forġēafen for heora ġewinne.
Cōmon hī of þrim folcum ðām strangestan Germānie, þæt is of Seaxum and of Angle and of Ġēatum. Of Ġēata fruman syndon Cantware and Wihtsǣtan; þæt is se þēod þe Wiht þæt ēalond oneardað. Of Seaxum, þæt is of ðām lande þe mon hāteð Ealdseaxan, cōmon Ēastseaxan and Sūðseaxan and Westseaxan. And of Engle cōman Ēastngle and Middelengle and Myrċe and eall Norðhembra cynn; is þæt land ðe Angulus is nemned, betwyh Ġēatum and Seaxum; and is sǣd of ðǣre tīde þe hī ðanon ġewiton oð tōdæġe þæt hit wēste wuniġe. Wǣron ǣrest heora lāttēowas and heretogan twēġen ġebrōðra, Henġest and Horsa. Hī wǣron Wihtgylses suna, þæs fæder wæs Witta hāten, þæs fæder wæs Wihta hāten, þæs fæder wæs Woden nemned, of ðæs strȳnde moniġra mǣġðra cyningcynn fruman lǣdde. Ne wæs ðā ylding tō þon þæt hī hēapmǣlum cōmon māran weorod of þām þēodum þe wǣ ǣr ġemynegodon. And þæt folc ðe hider cōm ongan weaxan and myċlian tō þan swīðe þæt hī wǣron on myclum eġe þām sylfan landbīġengan ðe hī ǣr hider laðedon and cȳġdon.
It was 449 years after our Lord's incarnation that the emperor Martianus received the kingdom, and he had (it) seven years. He was the forty-sixth from the emperor Augustus. Then the Angles and Saxons were invited by the aforesaid king (Vortigern), and came to Britain on three great ships, and received a dwelling place in the east of this island by order of the same king, who invited them hither, that they should strive and fight for their country. And they soon fought with their enemies who had oft harassed them from the north before; and the Saxons won victory then. Then they sent home messengers and bade (them) tell the fertility of this land and the Britons' cowardice. And then they sent a larger fleet of the stronger friends soon; and (it) was an invincible troop when there were united together. And the Britons gave and alloted them habitation among themselves, on the condition that they should fight for the peace and safety of their country and resist their enemies, and they (the Britons) should give them sustenance and estates in return for their strife.
They came of the three strongest races of Germany, that is, of Saxons and of Angles and of Jutes. Of Jutes' origin are the people of Kent and the 'Wihtsætan', that is, the people who inhabit the Isle of Wight. Of the Saxons, of the land (of the people) that is called Old Saxons, came the East Saxons, the South Saxons, and the West Saxons. And of Angles came the East Angles and the Middle Angles and Mercians and the whole race of Northumbria; it is the land that is called Angulus, between the Jutes and the Saxons; and it is said from the time when they departed thence till today that it remains waste. At first their leaders and commanders were two brothers, Hengest and Horsa. They were the sons of Wihtgyls, whose father was called Witta, whose father was named Wihta, whose father was named Woden, of whose stock the royal families of many tribes took their origin. There was no delay until they came in crowds, larger hosts from the tribes that we had mentioned before. And the people who came hither began to increase and multiply so much that they were a great terror to the inhabitants themselves who had invited and invoked them hither.
・ 市河 三喜，松浪 有 『古英語・中英語初歩』 研究社，1986年．
731年に完成したとされる Bede の Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (= Ecclesiastical History of the English People) は，アルフレッド大王の時代にマーシアの学者によって古英語に訳されている．そこには文盲の牛飼い Cædmon が霊感を得て作成したとされる，9行からなる現存する最古の古英詩 Cædmon's Hymn が収録されているが，そのテキストについては，さらに早い8世紀初頭の Bede のラテン語写本 (MS Kk. v. 16, Cambridge University Library; 通称 "Moore Manuscript") の中に，ノーサンブリア方言で書かれたバージョンも残されている．まず，オリジナルに最も近いと言われる Moore バージョンのテキストおよび現代英語訳を Irvine (37) より再掲しよう．
Nu scylun hergan hefænricæs uard,
metudæs mæcti end his modgidanc,
uerc uuldurfadur, sue he uundra gihuæs,
eci dryctin, or astelidæ.
He ærist scop aelda barnum
heben til hrofe, haleg scepen;
tha middungeard moncynnæs uard,
eci dryctin, æfter tiadæ
firum foldu, frea allmectig.
Now [we] must praise the Guardian of the heavenly kingdom, the Creator's might and His intention, the glorious Father's work, just as He, eternal Lord, established the beginning of every wonder. He, holy Creator, first shaped heaven as a roof for the children of men, then He, Guardian of mankind, eternal Lord, almighty Ruler, afterwards fashioned the world, the earth, for men.
次に，アルフレッド時代のものを Mitchell (212) より引用する．両テキスト間の綴字，音韻，形態，語彙の差に注意したい．
Nū sculon heriġean heofonrīċes weard,
Meotodes meahte ond his mōdġeþanc,
weorc wuldorfæder, swā hē wundra ġehwæs,
ēċe Drihten, ōr onstealde.
Hē ǣrest scēop eorðan bearnum
heofon tō hrōfe, hāliȝ Scyppend;
þā middanġeard monncynnes weard,
ēċe Drihten, æfter tēode
fīrum foldan, Frēa ælmihtiġ.
・ Irvine, Susan. "Beginnings and Transitions: Old English." Chapter 2 of The Oxford History of English. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone .Oxford: OUP, 2006.
・ Mitchell, Bruce. An Invitation to Old English and Anglo-Saxon England. Blackwell: Malden, MA, 1995.
古英語訳の聖書は，古英語読解のための初級者向け教材として有用である．近代英語の欽定訳聖書 (The Authorized Version) や現代英語版はもちろん，日本語を含むありとあらゆる言語への訳も出されており，比較・参照できるからだ．
以下，新約聖書より Matthew 7: 24--27 の「岩の上に家を建てる」寓話について，古英語版テキストを MS Corpus Christi College Cambridge 140 より示そう (Mitchell 60) ．合わせて，対応する近代英語テキストを欽定訳聖書より引用する．
Ǣlċ þāra þe ðās mīne word ġehȳrþ and þā wyrcþ byþ ġelīċ þǣm wīsan were se hys hūs ofer stān ġetimbrode.
Þā cōm þǣr reġen and myċel flōd and þǣr blēowon windas and āhruron on þæt hūs and hyt nā ne fēoll・ sōþlīċe hit wæs ofer stān ġetimbrod.
And ǣlċ þāra þe ġehȳrþ ðās mīne word and þā ne wyrcþ・ sē byþ ġelīċ þǣm dysigan menn þe ġetimbrode hys hūs ofer sand-ċeosel.
Þā rīnde hit and þǣr cōmon flōd and blēowon windas and āhruron on þæt hūs and þæt hūs fēoll・ and hys hryre wæs miċel
Therefore whosoever heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them, I will liken him unto a wise man, which built his house upon a rock:
And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell not: for it was founded upon a rock.
And every one that heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them not, shall be likened unto a foolish man, which built his house upon the sand:
And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell: and great was the fall of it.
聖書に関する古英語テキストについては，「#1803. Lord's Prayer」 ([2014-04-04-1])，「#1870. 「創世記」2:18--25 を7ヴァージョンで読み比べ」 ([2014-06-10-1]) も参照されたい．
（後記 2022/05/03(Tue)：Voicy 「英語の語源が身につくラジオ (heldio)」にて，この1節を古英語の発音で読み上げていますのでご参照ください．「古英語をちょっとだけ音読 マタイ伝「岩の上に家を建てる」寓話より」です．）
・ Mitchell, Bruce. An Invitation to Old English and Anglo-Saxon England. Blackwell: Malden, MA, 1995.
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle は，アルフレッド大王の命により890年頃に編纂が開始された年代記である．古英語で書かれており，9写本が現存している．最も長く続いたものは通称 Peterborough Chronicle と呼ばれもので，1154年までの記録が残っている．以下の抜粋は，Worcester Chronicle と呼ばれるバージョンの793年の記録である（Crystal 19 より現代英語訳も合わせて引用）．数年前からイングランドに出没し始めたヴァイキングが，この年に，ノーサンブリアのリンディスファーン島を襲った．イングランド人の怯える様が，印象的に記されている．最後に言及されている Sicga なる人物は，788年にノーサンブリア王 Ǣlfwald を殺した悪名高い貴族である．
Ann. dccxciii. Her ƿæron reðe forebecna cumene ofer noðhymbra land . 7 þæt folc earmlic breȝdon þæt ƿæron ormete þodenas 7 liȜrescas . 7 fyrenne dracan ƿæron ȝeseƿene on þam lifte fleoȝende. þam tacnum sona fyliȝde mycel hunȝer . 7 litel æfter þam þæs ilcan ȝeares . on . vi. id. ianr . earmlice hæþenra manna herȝunc adileȝode ȝodes cyrican in lindisfarna ee . þurh hreaflac 7 mansliht . 7 Sicȝa forðferde . on . viii . kl. martius.
Year 793. Here were dreadful forewarnings come over the land of Northumbria, and woefully terrified the people: these were amazing sheets of lightning and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons were seen flying in the sky. A great famine soon followed these signs, and shortly after in the same year, on the sixth day before the ides of January, the woeful inroads of heathen men destroyed god's church in Lindisfarne island by fierce robbery and slaughter. And Sicga died on the eighth day before the calends of March.
歴史上，この793年の事件は，イングランドにおける本格的なヴァイキングの侵攻の開始を告げる画期的な出来事である．
・ Crystal, David. Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices. London: The British Library, 2010.
Beowulf は，古英語で書かれた最も長い叙事詩（3182行）であり，アングロサクソン時代から現存する最も重要な文学作品である．スカンディナヴィアの英雄 Beowulf はデンマークで怪物 Grendel を殺し，続けてその母をも殺した．Beowulf は後にスウェーデン南部で Geat 族の王となるが，年老いてから竜と戦い，戦死する．
この叙事詩は，古英語で scop と呼ばれた宮廷吟遊詩人により，ハープの演奏とともに吟じられたとされる．現存する唯一の写本（1731年の火事で損傷している）は1000年頃のものであり，2人の写字生の手になる．作者は不詳であり，いつ制作されたかについても確かなことは分かっていない．8世紀に成立したという説もあれば，11世紀という説もある．
冒頭の11行を Crystal (18) より，現代英語の対訳付きで以下に再現しよう．
1 HǷÆT ǷE GARDEna in ȝeardaȝum . Lo! we spear-Danes in days of old 2 þeodcyninȝa þrym ȝefrunon heard the glory of the tribal kings, 3 hu ða æþelinȝas ellen fremedon . how the princes did courageous deeds. 4 oft scyld scefing sceaþena þreatum Often Scyld Scefing from bands of enemies 5 monegū mæȝþum meodo setla ofteah from many tribes took away mead-benches, 6 eȝsode eorl[as] syððan ærest ƿearð terrified earl[s], since first he was 7 feasceaft funden he þæs frofre ȝebad found destitute. He met with comfort for that, 8 ƿeox under ƿolcum, ƿeorðmyndum þah, grew under the heavens, throve in honours 9 oðþ[æt] him æȝhƿylc þara ymbsittendra until each of the neighbours to him 10 ofer hronrade hyran scolde over the whale-road had to obey him, 11 ȝomban ȝyldan þ[æt] ƿæs ȝod cyninȝ. pay him tribute. That was a good king!
冒頭部分を含む写本画像 (Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, fol. 132r) は，こちらから閲覧できる．その他，以下のサイトも参照．
・ Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, Augustine of Hippo, Soliloquia; Marvels of the East; Beowulf; Judith, etc.: 写本画像を閲覧可能．
・ Beowulf: BL による物語と写本の解説．
・ Beowulf Readings: 古英語原文と「読み上げ」へのアクセスあり．
・ Beowulf Translation: 現代英語訳．
・ Diacritically-Marked Text of Beowulf facing a New Translation (with explanatory notes): 古英語原文と現代英語の対訳のパラレルテキスト．
・ Crystal, David. Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices. London: The British Library, 2010.
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