倒置 (inversion) と受動態化 (passivisation) という2つの統語論的過程には共通した役割がある．本来的な主語以外の要素を，典型的に話題 (topic) を担う節頭の位置に動かすことができるということだ．換言すれば，2つの統語論的過程はともに話題化 (topicalisation) という語用論上の要求に応えてくれる手段なのである．
一方，倒置と受動態化には，興味深い相違点がある．いや，相違というよりも相補といったほうが適切だろう．両者はタッグを組んで，うまいく問題を解決しているようなのである．Seoane (379) の議論を引用しよう．
. . . inversion and passivization operate in different syntactic environments: passivization applies to transitive verbs whereas inversion applies to intransitive and copular clauses. Empirical studies . . . have made manifest that the tendency of inversion to apply to intransitive clauses was already observed in OE, ME, and EModE, when intransitive verbs dominate in the inverted (XVS) order, while there is a predominance of transitive verbs in the non-inverted order (XSV, probably determined by the need to maintain the cohesion between V and O . . .). As argument-reversing constructions, therefore, passivization and inversion were in a nearly complementary distribution and passives were almost the only order-rearranging pattern available for transitive clauses.
なるほど，倒置と受動態化は，それぞれ自動詞文と他動詞文を相手にするという違いはありながらも，語用論上の問題解決を目指しているという点では同じ方向をみているといえる．しかし，2つの過程には決定的に異なることが1つある．それは，倒置は有標な話題を作り出すが，受動態化が作り出す話題はあくまで無標であることだ．上の引用にすぐ続く1文を引用しよう (Seoane 379) ．
However, the most significant difference between the two argument-reversing devices is that, even if they satisfy the same discourse constraints, inversion produces marked topics, while passivization is the only strategy reversing the order of clausal constituents and creating unmarked topics/subjects.
これまで倒置と受動態化を結びつけて考えたことがなかったので，とても新鮮な見解だった．
・ Seoane, Elenna. "Information Structure and Word Order Change: The Passive as an Information-Rearranging Strategy in the History of English." Chapter 15 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 360--91.
昨日の記事「#3576. 黒人英語 (= AAVE) の言語的特徴 --- 発音」 ([2019-02-10-1]) に引き続き，McArthur に依拠して AAVE の言語的特徴について．今回は文法に注目する．
(1) 他の英語変種にもみられるが，多重否定は普通に用いられる．No way no girl can't wear no platform shoes to no amusement park.
(2) 存在構文に there ではなく it を用いる．It ain't no food here.
(3) 複数形，所有格形，3単現の -s，過去の -ed などが省略されることがある．He got three cent. / That's my brother book. / She like new clothes. / They talk all night.
(4) 疑問文で倒置がなされないことがある．What it is? / How you are?
(5) be 動詞の否定で do が用いられることがある．It don't all be her fault.
(6) be の習慣相の用法．They be fightin. / He be laughing.
(7) 強勢のある been により遠い過去の習慣的な行為を表わす．I béen see dat movie. / She béen had dat hat.
(8) 時に小辞 a により意志を表わす．I'm a shoot you. (= I'm going to shoot you.)
(9) steady が，進行形の前位置や，文末の位置において強勢を伴って相的な意味を表わす．We be steady rappin. / We steady be rappin. / We be rappin stéady. (= We are always talking.) / They steady be high. / They be stady high. / They be high stéady.. (= They are always intoxicated.)
(10) Come が時に準助動詞として用いられる．He come tellin me some story. (= He told me a lie.) / They come comin in here like they own de place. (= They came in here like they owned the place.)
(11) like を「ほとんど」の意味で副詞的に用いる．I like to die(d). (= I almost died.) / He like to hit his head on that branch. (= He almost hit his head on that branch.)
確かにこのような英語で話しかけられれば，わかるはずの文も聞き取れないだろうと思われる．しかし，異なる言語というほどの距離感ではないのも事実である．AAVE の位置づけの論争も熱を帯びるわけだ．
・ McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Stein は英語の2種類の倒置 (inversion) をとりあげ，それぞれが歴史的にいかなる機能上の変化を遂げてきたかを論じている．Stein (135, 139) の扱った倒置構造は，次の type A と type B である ．type A は新しい何かを導入する役割を果たし，type B は否定や限定を強める役割を果たす．いずれも近代英語期に台頭してきたものであり，古英語期の倒置構造が直接に受け継がれたものではない．
[ type A ]
・ In came Chomsky.
・ Down with the rebound comes . . .
・ Beyond it rose the peopled hills.
・ Developing offshore drilling in California are two Texas oil men.
[ type B ]
・ Rarely did I hear such overtones of gratitude as went into the utterance of this compound noun.
・ Not until the Book of Splendour did appear in Spain in the thirteenth century did a formidable metaphysical text on cabalism appear.
・ Often did she visit the inhabitants of that gloomy village
・ Only of late have I learned about the complexities of subjectivity
・ Never did I hear about cabalism.
これらの倒置構造の歴史的推移は，Stein (146--47) によれば次の通りである．
Prior to the central structural process, the grammaticalisation of SVO, inversion (or not) did have non-propositional meaning, which is best described as 'textual' or discourse meaning, but no affective meaning. . . After the dissolution of the Old English types of inversions, the late Middle English situation shows an incipient tendency for use as a focussing device. The modern developments include the rise of the B type (the emotional type), expressive and subjective in meaning, as well as the rise of the A type, with a discourse-cum-affective type of meaning. The latter type is in part a renaissance of a discourse meaning that was present in the Old English (VSO) pattern, which did not have the affective component. To that extent the development has gone full circle.
以上をまとめれば，一般的に語順が比較的自由だった古英語では，倒置の機能は談話的なものに特化していたが，SVO語順を指向した中英語では談話的機能は失われて焦点化の機能が発達し，SVO語順が確立した近代にかけては感情的な機能が前面で出てくるとともに，部分的に談話的な機能が復活してきたという流れだ．
語順倒置の形式ではなく機能の歴史的推移というのも，突っ込んでいくとおもしろそう（だが，難しそう）だ．
・ Stein, Dieter. "Subjective Meanings and the History of Inversions." Subjectivity and Sbujectivisation: Linguistic Perspective. Ed. Dieter Stein and Susan Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 129--50.
この2日間の記事「#3517. if を使わずに V + S とする条件節」 ([2018-12-13-1])，「#3518. 条件節と疑問文の近さ」 ([2018-12-14-1]) で，統語的・意味論的な観点から「疑問」「接続法」「願望」「条件」の接点を探ってきた．この仲間に，もう1つ「感嘆」というキーワードも参加させたい．
感嘆文では，疑問文で典型的に起こる V + S の語順がしばしば採用される．Jespersen (499) から例文を挙げよう．
・ Sh Merch II. 2. 106 Lord, how art thou chang'd
・ Sh Merch II. 3.16 Alacke, what heinous sinne is it in me To be ashamed to be my Fathers childe
・ BJo 3.133 what a vile wretch was I
・ Farquhar B 321 What a rogue is my father!
・ Defoe G 44 what fool must he be now that they have given him a place!
・ Goldsm 658 What a fool was I, to think a young man could learn modesty by travelling
・ Macaulay H 2.209 What a generation of vipers do we live among!
・ Thack N 180 What a festival is that day to her | What (how great) was my surprise when they were engaged!
・ Bennett C 2.12 What a night, isn't it?
最後の例文では付加疑問がついているが，これなどはまさに感嘆文と疑問文の融合ともいうべき例だろう．感嘆と疑問が合わさった「#2258. 感嘆疑問文」 ([2015-07-03-1]) も例が豊富である．
また，感嘆と願望が互いに近しいことは説明を要しないだろう．may 祈願文が V + S 語順を示すのも，感嘆の V + S 語順と何らかの関係があるからかもしれない．
may 祈願文と関連して，Jespersen (502) に，Dickinson, European Anarchy 74 からの興味深い例文があったので挙げておこう．
"The war may come", says one party. "Yes", says the other; and secretly mutters, "May the war come!"
[ 固定リンク | 印刷用ページ ]
may 祈願は，疑問文に典型的な V + S 語順を，願望や感嘆のためにリクルートした例と考えてみるのもおもしろそうだ．
・ Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.
現代英語には，条件節を表わすのに if を用いずに，主語と動詞の倒置で代用する構文がある．例文を挙げよう．
・ Were I to take over my father's business, I would make a drastic reform.
・ Had World War II ended two years earlier, how many lives would have been saved!
・ Should anything happen to him, call me at once.
現代英語では，were, should, had で始まるものに限定されており，意味的にも反事実的条件に強く傾いているが，かつては疑問文の形成と同様に一般の動詞が前置されることもあったし，中立的条件にも用いられた．Leuschner and Nest (2) より，古英語や中英語からの例を挙げよう．
・ Fulga nu se mete ðære wambe willan, & sio wamb ðæs metes, ðonne towyrpð God ægðer. (YCOE: Cura Pastoralis, late 9th cent.)
"If the food now follow.SUBJ the will of the belly and the belly that of the food, God annihilates both."
・ Do þu hit eanes awei; ne schalt tu neauer nan oðer swuch acourin. (PPCME2: Hali Meidhad, c. 1225)
"If you get rid of it once, you will never (re)gain anything like it."
・ Deceyueth me the foxe / so haue I ylle lerned my casus (PPCME2: Caxton's History of Reynard the Fox, 1481)
"If the fox deceives me, I have learned my lesson badly."
最初の2つの例文において，前置されている動詞は接続法の形式である．
なぜ条件節を表わすのに倒置が起こるのかという問題については，Jespersen (373--74) が「疑問文からの派生」説を紹介している．
A condition is very often denoted by a clause without any conjunction, but containing a verb placed before its subject. This construction, which is found in all the Gothonic language, is often explained from a question with implied positive answer: Will you come? [Yes, then] we can start at once.---A clear instance of this is AV 1. Cor. 7.27 Art thou bound vnto a wife? seeke not to bee loosed. Art thou loosed from a wife? seeke not a wife.
しかし，Jespersen (374) は，「疑問文からの派生」説だけでは説明しきれないとも考えており，続けて「接続法としての用法」説の可能性にも言及している．
But interrogative sentences, though undoubtedly explaining much, are not the only sources of our construction. Pretty frequently we find a subjunctive used in such a way that it cannot have arisen from a question, but must be due to a main sentence expressing a desire, permission, or the like: AR 164 uor beo hit enes tobroken, ibet ne bið hit neuer | Towneley 171 Gett I those land lepars, I breke ilka bone | Sh Merch III. 2.61 Liue thou, I liue with much more dismay | Cymb IV. 3.30 come more, for more you're ready | John III. 3.31 and creep the time nere so slow, Yet it shall come, for me to doe these good.
「疑問」「接続法」「願望」「条件」というキーワードが，何らかの形で互いに結びついていそうだという感覚がある．VS 条件節の発達は，最近取り上げてきた may 祈願の発達の問題にも光を投げかけてくれるかもしれない (cf. 「#3515. 現代英語の祈願文，2種」 [2018-12-11-1]，「#3516. 仮定法祈願と may 祈願の同居」 ([2018-12-12-1])) ．
・ Leuschner, Torsten and Daan Van den Nest. "Asynchronous Grammaticalization: V1-Conditionals in Present-Day English and German." Languages in Contrast 15 (2015): 34--63.
・ Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.
一昨日と昨日の記事 ([2018-08-31-1], [2018-09-01-1]) に補足する．Biber et al (§11.2.3.4, p. 918) によると「主語＋助動詞」が「助動詞＋主語」となる環境には，先の記事で挙げたものに加えて，もう2種類（以下の A と C）ある．祈願の may の構文 (B) について調べている途中に出くわしたものなので，それと合わせて3点を引用する．A と B は古い用法の残存ということなので，ぜひ歴史的な観点から迫っていきたい構文の問題だ．
11.2.3.4 Special cases of inversion in independent clauses
Some uses of inversion are highly restricted and usually confined to more or less fixed collocations. Types A and B described below are remnants of earlier uses and carry archaic literary overtones.
A Formulaic clauses with subjunctive verb forms
The combination of the inflectionless subjunctive and inversion gives the highlighted expressions below an archaic and solemn ring:
Be it proclaimed in all the schools Plato was right! (FICT)
If you want to throw your life away, so be it, it is your life, not mine. (FICT)
"I, Charles Seymour, do swear that I will be faithful, and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth, her heirs and successors according to law, so help me God." (FICT)
Long Live King Edmund! (FICT)
Suffice it to say that the DTI was the supervising authority for such fringe banks. (NEWS)
B Clauses opening with the auxiliary may
The auxiliary may is used in a similar manner to express a strong wish. This represents a more productive pattern:
May it be pointed out that the teacher should always try to extend the girls helping them to achieve more and more. (FICT†)
May God forgive you your blasphemy, Pilot. Yes. May he forgive you and open your eyes. (FICT†)
The XJS may be an ageing leviathan but it is still a unique car. Long may it be so! (NEWS)
Long May She Reign! (NEWS)
C Imperative clauses
Imperative clauses may contain an expressed subject following don't . . . .
A と B の意味的・統語的類似性に注目すべきである．ともに命令，勧告，祈願などの「強い希望」が感じられる．歴史的には，may などの法助動詞は屈折による接続法の代用として発達してきた側面があり，両者が意味的に近い関係にあることは当然といえば当然である．だが，こうして現代英語にも古風な表現としてではあれ共存しており，かつ統語的にも倒置が生じるという点で振る舞いが似ているのは，非常に興味深い．
・ Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
昨日の記事 ([2018-08-31-1]) に引き続いての話題．Huddleston and Pullum より，現代英語でデフォルトの語順が倒置されて「助動詞＋主語」となる9つのケースを紹介した．この9つを大きく2つのタイプに分けると，非主語の句が前置されることにより倒置が引き起こされるものと，そうでないものとに振り分けられる．前者はさらに2分され，そのような句がある場合に必ず倒置しなければならないケースと，倒置が任意であるケースとが区別される．Huddleston and Pullum (97) よりまとめよう．
| UNTRIGGERED | TRIGGERED | |
|---|---|---|
| obligatory | optional | |
| Closed interrogatives | Open interrogatives | Exclamatives |
| Conditional inversion | Initial negative | Other fronted elements |
| Optative may | Initial only | |
| Initial so/such | ||
現代英語の最も普通の語順は「主語＋（助）動詞」である．ただし，いくつかのケースでは，統語的，意味的，語用的な動機づけにより，この語順が倒置 (inversion) されることがあり「（助）動詞＋主語」となり得る．ここでは動詞を助動詞に限定した上で，どのようなケースがあるか，Huddleston and Pullum (94--96) の分類から要約してみよう．
(1) 閉じた疑問文 (Closed interrogatives)
- Can she speak French?
- Does she speak French?
(2) 開かれた疑問文 (Open interrogatives)
- What did she tell you?
- Where did you go after that?
- What is she doing?
(3) 感嘆文 (Exclamatives) （ただし，主語＋助動詞の語順も可能）
- What a fool have I been?
- How hard did she try?
(4) 否定要素が前置される場合 (Initial negative)
- Not one of them did he find useful.
- Nowhere does he mention my book.
(5) only が前置される場合 (Initial only)
- Only two of them did he find useful.
- Only once had she complained.
(6) so/such が前置される場合 (Initial so/such)
- So little time did we have that we had to cut corners.
- Such a fuss would he make that we'd all agree.
- You got it wrong and so did I.
(7) その他の要素が前置される場合 (Other fronted elements)
- Thus had they parted the previous evening.
- Many another poem could I speak of which sang itself into my heart.
- The more wives he had, the more children could he beget.
- Well did I remember the crisis of emotion into which he was plunged that night.
(8) 条件節 (Conditional inversion)
- Had he seen the incident he'd have reported it to the police.
(9) 祈願の may (Optative may)
- May you both enjoy the long and happy retirement that you so richly deserve.
- May the best man win!
- May you be forgiven!
こう見てみると，現代英語でもデフォルトの「主語＋助動詞」が倒置されて「助動詞＋主語」となる機会は，諸々合わせれば，種類としても頻度として必ずしも少なくないように思えてくる．だが，多いというのは言い過ぎだろう．むしろ，通常と違っているという低頻度性や異質性を利用して，語用的に有用な何かを行なっているのだと考えておきたい．
・ Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
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