「#2007. Gramley の英語史概説書の目次」 ([2014-10-25-1]) に続き，英語史概説書の目次を挙げて，英語史 (a history of English) を数分で俯瞰するというシリーズの第2弾．Fennell (2001) は，本ブログでもたびたび参照してきた英語史概説書であり，歴史社会言語学的なアプローチに特徴がある．ある書評を読むと，"A Sociolinguistic Approach" という副題の割には，とりわけ古い時代における社会言語学的な扱いは弱く，体系的でもないという．一方で，最後の3章，後期近代英語以降の各章では社会言語学的な洞察が光っており，読むに値するという評価がある．私もおよそこの評価に同意する．新しい洞察がどれだけあるかといえば必ずしも多くはないかもしれないが，近代以前の時代についても社会言語学的に興味深い話題をいくつか提供しており，社会言語学的に英語史を眺めるとどうなるかという試みとしてはよいのではないかと好意的に見ている．社会言語学寄りとはいえ伝統的な構造言語学的な記述も多いので，その他の定評のある英語史概説書を1, 2冊読んだ上で読むのに適するのではないか．ノードの開閉もできる Flash 版ももどうぞ．
1 Introduction
1.1 The Time Periods of English
1.2 Language Change
1.3 Sources of Information on Language Change
1.4 Linguistic Preliminaries
1.5 The Sounds of English, and Symbols Used to Describe Them
1.5.1 Consonants
1.5.2 Vowels
1.5.2.1 Monophthongs
1.5.2.2 Diphthongs
1.6 Structure of the Book
2 The Pre-history of English
Timeline: The Indo-European Period
2.1 The Indo-European Languages and Linguistic Relatedness
2.1.1 The Beginnings
2.1.2 The Development of Historical Linguistics
2.1.3 Genetic Relatedness
2.2 Linguistic Developments: The Indo-European Language Family
2.2.1 Family-Tree Relationships
2.2.2 The Indo-European Family
2.2.2.1 Indo-Iranian
2.2.2.2 Armenian
2.2.2.3 Albanian
2.2.2.4 Balto-Slavonic
2.2.2.5 Hellenic
2.2.2.6 Italic
2.2.2.7 Celtic
2.2.2.8 Germanic
2.3 From Indo-European to Germanic
2.3.1 Prosody
2.3.2 The Consonant System: Sound Shifts
2.3.2.1 Grimm's Law
2.3.2.2 Verner's Law
2.3.2.3 The Second Consonant Shift
2.3.3 The Vowel System
2.3.4 Morphology
2.3.5 Syntax
2.3.6 Lexicon
2.3.7 Semantics
2.3.8 Indo-European/Germanic Texts
2.3.9 Neogrammarians, Structuralists and Contemporary Linguistic Models
2.4 Typological Classification
2.4.1 Universals
2.4.1.1 Syntactic Universals
2.4.2 Morphological Typology
2.5 Sociolinguistic Focus. The Indo-European Tribes and the Spread of Language. Language Contact and Language Change. Archaeological Linguistics
2.5.1 Language Contact
2.5.2 Archaeological Linguistics
2.6 Conclusion
3 Old English
Timeline: The Old English Period
3.1 Social and Political History
3.1.1 Britain before the English
3.1.2 The Anglo-Saxon Invasions
3.1.3 Anglo-Saxon Influence
3.1.4 Scandinavian Influence
3.2 Linguistic Developments: The Sounds, Structure and Typology of Old English
3.2.1 The Structure of Old English
3.2.1.1 OE Consonants
3.2.1.2 Vowels: from Germanic to Old English
3.2.1.3 Old English Gender
3.2.1.4 Inflection in Old English
3.2.1.5 Old English Syntax
3.2.1.6 Old English Vocabulary
3.3 Linguistic and Literary Achievements
3.3.1 Texts
3.3.1.1 Prose
3.3.1.2 Poetry
3.4 The Dialects of Old English
3.5 Sociolinguistic Focus
3.5.1 Language Contact
3.5.1.1 Latin and Celtic
3.5.1.2 The Scandinavians
4 Middle English
Timeline: The Middle English Period
4.1 Social and Political History
4.1.1 Political History: The Norman Conquest to Edward I
4.1.2 Social History
4.1.2.1 The Establishment of Towns and Burghs and the Beginnings of Social Stratification
4.2 Linguistic Developments: Middle English Sounds and Structure, with Particular Emphasis on the Breakdown of the Inflectional System and its Linguistic Typological Implications
4.2.1 Major Changes in the Sound System
4.2.1.1 The Consonants
4.2.1.2 Consonant Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.1.3 Vowels in Stressed Syllables
4.2.1.4 Vowels in Unstressed Syllables
4.2.1.5 Lengthening and Shortening
4.2.1.6 Summary Table of Vowel Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.1.7 The Formation of Middle English Diphthongs
4.2.2 Major Morphological Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.2.1 Loss of Inflections
4.2.2.2 Other Changes in the Morphological System
4.2.2.3 Verbs
4.2.3 Middle English Syntax
4.2.3.1 Word Order
4.2.4 The Lexicon: Loan Words from French
4.2.4.1 Numbers and Parts of the Body
4.2.4.2 Two French Sources
4.3 Middle English Dialects
4.3.1 Linguistic and Literary Achievements
4.3.1.1 Middle English Literature
4.3.2 Language
4.3.3 Genre
4.4 Sociolinguistic Focus: Social Stratification, Multilingualism and Dialect Variation. Language Contact: The Myth of Middle English Creolization
4.4.1 English Re-established
4.4.1.1 Language and the Rise of the Middle Class
4.4.2 The Development of Standard English
4.4.2.1 The Evolution of ME 'Standard' English
4.4.3 Middle English Creolization: Myth?
4.4.3.1 Definitions
4.4.3.2 Pidgins and Creoles in England?
4.5 Conclusion
5 Early Modern English
Timeline: The Early Modern English Period
5.1 Social and Political History
5.1.1 Historical and Political Background
5.1.1.1 Internal Instability and colonial Expansion
5.2 Linguistic Developments: The Variable Character of Early Modern English
5.2.1 Phonology
5.2.1.1 Consonants
5.2.1.2 Vowels
5.2.1.3 The Great Vowel Shift
5.2.2 Morphology
5.2.2.1 Nouns
5.2.2.2 Pronouns
5.2.2.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
5.2.2.4 Verbs
5.2.2.5 The Spread of Northern Forms
5.2.3 Syntax
5.2.3.1 Periphrastic do
5.2.3.2 Progressive Verb Forms
5.2.3.3 Passives
5.2.4 Sample Text
5.2.5 Vocabulary
5.2.6 The Anxious State of English: The Search for Authority
5.2.6.1 Dictionaries and the Question of Linguistic Authority: Swift's and Johnson's View of Language
5.3 Linguistic and Literary Achievement
5.4 Sociolinguistic Focus
5.4.1 Variation in Early Modern English
5.4.2 Standardization
5.4.2.1 The Printing Press
5.4.2.2 The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation
5.4.2.3 English Established
5.4.3 The Great Vowel Shift
5.4.3.1 Phonological Change
5.4.4 Case Study: Power and Solidarity Relations in Early Modern English
5.5 Conclusion
6 Present-Day English
Timeline: Present-Day English
Introduction
6.1 Social and Political History
6.1.1 The Age of Revolutions, Wars and Imperialism
6.1.2 Urbanization, Industrialization and Social Stratification
6.2 Linguistic Developments
6.2.1 Morphology and Syntax
6.2.1.1 Morphology
6.2.1.2 Syntax
6.2.2 The Lexicon
6.2.2.1 Colonialism, Contact and Borrowings
6.2.2.2 Neologisms
6.2.2.3 Illustrative Texts
6.3 Modern English Dialects
6.3.1 Traditional Dialects
6.3.2 Modern Dialects
6.3.3 Received Pronunciation (RP): The Social Background
6.3.3.1 Characteristics of RP
6.3.4 RP, Estuary English and 'the Queen's English'
6.4 Sociolinguistic Focus: English in Scotland, Ireland and Wales --- Multilingualism in Britain
6.4.1 English in the British Isles
6.4.1.1 English in Scotland
6.4.1.2 English in Wales
6.4.1.3 English in Ireland
6.4.2 Immigrant Varieties of English in Britain
6.4.2.1 Immigration to Britain in the PDE Period
6.4.2.2 Colonial Immigration and Language
7 English in the United States
Timeline: America in the Modern Period
7.1 Social and Political History
7.1.1 Settlement and Language
7.1.2 Settlement by Region
7.1.2.1 The Original Thirteen Colonies
7.1.2.2 The Middle West
7.1.2.3 The South and West
7.2 The Development of American English
7.2.1 The Strength and maintenance of Dialect Boundaries
7.2.2 How, Why and When American English Began to Diverge from British English
7.2.2.1 Physical Separation
7.2.2.2 The Different Physical Conditions Encountered by the Settlers
7.2.2.3 Contact with Immigrant Non-Native Speakers of English
7.2.2.4 Developing Political Differences and the Growing American Sense of National Identity
7.3 Language Variation in the United States
7.3.1 Uniformity and Diversity in Early American English
7.3.2 Regional Dialect Divisions in American English
7.3.2.1 The Lexicon
7.3.2.2 Phonology: Consonants
7.3.2.3 Phonology: Vowels
7.3.3 Social and Ethnic Dialects
7.3.3.1 Social Class and Language Change
7.3.3.2 Ethnicity
7.3.3.3 African-American Vernacular English
7.3.3.4 Traditional Dialects and the Resistance to Change
8 World-Wide English
Timeline: World-Wide English
8.1 Social and Political History: The Spread of English across the Globe
8.1.1 British Colonialism
8.1.1.1 Canada
8.1.1.2 The Caribbean
8.1.1.3 Australia
8.1.1.4 New Zealand
8.1.1.5 South Africa
8.1.1.6 South Asia
8.1.1.7 Former Colonial Africa: West Africa
8.1.1.8 East Africa
8.1.1.9 South-East Asia and South Pacific
8.1.2 An Overview of the Use of English throughout the World
8.2 English as a Global language
8.2.1 The Industrial Revolution
8.2.2 American Economic Superiority and Political Leadership
8.2.3 American Technological Domination
8.2.4 The Boom in English language Teaching
8.2.5 The Need for a Global Language
8.2.6 Structural Considerations
8.2.7 Global and at the Same Time Local
8.3 English as a Killer Language
8.3.1 Language Death
8.3.2 Language and Communication Technology
8.4 The Future of English
・ Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
概説書の目次というのは，その分野の全体像を見渡すのにうってつけである．英語史概説書も例外ではない．例えば，「#1301. Gramley の英語史概説書のコンパニオンサイト」 ([2012-11-18-1]) で紹介した The History of English: An Introduction の目次を取り上げよう．Gramley の英語史概説書のコンパニオンサイトのこちらのページより目次が得られるので，以下そこから目次の章立ての部分のみを抜き出したものを転載する．
Chapter 1: The origins of English (before 450)
1.1. The origins of human language
1.2. Language change
1.3. Changes in Germanic before the invasions of Britain
1.4. The world of the Germanic peoples
1.5. The Germanic migrations
1.6. Summary
Chapter 2: Old English: early Germanic Britain (450--700)
2.1. The first peoples
2.2. The Germanic incursions
2.3. Introduction to Old English
2.4. The Christianization of England
2.5. Literature in the early Old English period
2.6. Summary
Chapter 3: Old English: the Viking invasions and their consequences (700--1066/1100)
3.1. The Viking invasions
3.2. Linguistic influence of Old Norse
3.3. Creolization
3.4. Alfred's reforms and the West Saxon standard
3.5. Monastic reform, linguistic developments, and literary genres
3.6. Summary
Chapter 4: Middle English: The non-standard period (1066/1100--1350)
4.1. Dynastic conflict and the Norman Conquest
4.2. Linguistic features of Middle English in the non-standard period
4.3. French influence on Middle English and the question of creolization
4.4. English literature
4.5. Dialectal diversity in ME
4.6. Summary
Chapter 5: Middle English: the emergence of Standard English (1350--1500)
5.1. Political and social turmoil and demographic developments
5.2. The expansion of domains
5.3. Chancery English (Chancery Standard)
5.4. Literature
5.5. Variation
5.6 Summary
Chapter 6: The Early Modern English Period (1500--1700)
6.1. The Early Modern English Period
6.2. Early Modern English
6.3. Regulation and codification
6.4. Religious and scientific prose and belles lettres
6.5. Variation: South and North
6.6. Summary
Chapter 7: The spread of English (since the late sixteenth century)
7.1. Social-historical background
7.2. Language policy
7.3. The emergence of General English (GenE)
7.4. Transplantation
7.5. Linguistic correlates of European expansionism
7.6. Summary
Chapter 8: English in Great Britain and Ireland (since 1700)
8.1. Social and historical developments in Britain and Ireland
8.2. England and Wales
8.3. Scotland
8.4. Ireland
8.5. Urban varieties
8.6. Summary
Chapter 9: English pidgins, English creoles, and English (since the early seventeenth century)
9.1. European expansion and the slave trade
9.2. Language contact
9.3. Pidgins
9.4. Creoles
9.5. Theories of origins
9.6 Summary
Chapter 10: English in North America (since the early seventeenth century)
10.1. The beginnings of English in North America
10.2. Colonial English
10.3. Development of North American English after American independence
10.4. Ethnic variety within AmE
10.5. Summary
Chapter 11: English in the ENL communities of the Southern Hemisphere (since 1788)
11.1. Social-historical background
11.2. Southern Hemisphere English: grammar
11.3. Southern Hemisphere English: pronunciation
11.4. Southern Hemisphere English: vocabulary and pragmatics
11.5. Regional and ethnic variation
11.6. Summary
Chapter 12: English in the ESL countries of Africa and Asia (since 1795)
12.1. English as a Second Language
12.2. Language planning and policy
12.3. Linguistic features of ESL
12.4. Substrate influence
12.5. Identitarian function of language
12.6. Summary
Chapter 13: Global English (since 1945)
13.1. The beginnings of Global English
13.2. Media dominance
13.3. Features of medialized language
13.4. ENL, ESL, and ELF/EFL
13.5. The identitarian role of the multiplicity of Englishes
13.6. Summary
近年の英語史概説書におよそ共有される特徴ではあるが，近現代の英語を巡る社会言語学的な記述や論考が目立つ．Gramley では，英語の諸変種（ピジン語やクレオール語を含め）について多くの紙幅が割かれており，とりわけ12--13章においてその内容が充実しているように思われる．また，ENL, ESL, ELF/EFL の区別にかかわらず英語が "identitarian role" を担っているという指摘が繰り返されている辺り，21世紀的な英語観が感じられる．社会言語学的な色彩の濃い英語史概説書として，Fennell と並んでお勧めしたい．
・ Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
・ Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
昨日の記事「#1992. Milroy による言語外的要因への擁護」 ([2014-10-10-1]) を含め，ここ2週間余のあいだに言語接触や言語変化における言語外的要因の重要性について複数の記事を書いてきた (cf. [2014-09-25-1], [2014-09-26-1], [2014-10-04-1]) ．今回は，視点のバランスを取るために，言語外的要因に対する慎重論もみておきたい．Hickey (195) は，自らが言語接触の入門書を編んでいるほどの論客だが，"Language Change" と題する文章で，言語接触による言語変化の説明について冷静な見解を示している．
Already in 19th century Indo-European studies contact appears as an explanation for change though by and large mainstream Indo-Europeanists preferred language-internal accounts. One should stress that strictly speaking contact is not so much an explanation for language change as a suggestion for the source of a change, that is, it does not say why a change took place but rather where it came from. For instance, a language such as Irish or Welsh may have VSO as a result of early contact with languages also showing this word order. However, this does not explain how VSO arose in the first place (assuming that it is not an original word order for any language). The upshot of this is that contact accounts frequently just push back the quest for explanation a stage further.
Considerable criticism has been levelled at contact accounts because scholars have often been all too ready to accept contact as a source, to the neglect of internal factors or inherited features within a language. This readiness to accept contact, particularly when other possibilities have not been given due consideration, has led to much criticism of contact accounts in the 1970s and 1980s . . . . However, a certain swing around can be seen from the 1990s onwards, a re-valorisation of language contact when considered from an objective and linguistically acceptable point of view as demanded by Thomason & Kaufman (1988) . . . .
言語接触は，言語変化がなぜ生じたかではなく言語変化がどこからきたかを説明するにすぎず，究極の原因については何も語ってくれないという批判だ．究極の原因に関する限り，確かにこの批判は的を射ているようにも思われる．しかし，当該の言語変化の直接の「原因」とはいわずとも，間接的に引き金になっていたり，すでに別の原因で始まっていた変化に一押しを加えるなど，何らかの形で参与した「要因」として，より慎重にいえば「諸要因の1つ」として，ある程度客観的に指摘することのできる言語接触の事例はある．この控えめな意味における「言語外的要因」を擁護する風潮は，上の引用にもあるとおり，1990年代から勢いを強めてきた．振り子が振れた結果，言語接触や言語外的要因を安易に喧伝するきらいも確かにあるように思われ，その懸念もわからないではないが，昨日の記事で見たように言語内的要因をデフォルトとしてきた言語変化研究における長い伝統を思い起こせば，言語接触擁護派の攻勢はようやく始まったばかりのようにも見える．
上に引用した Hickey の "Language Change" は，限られた紙幅ながらも，言語変化理論を手際よくまとめた良質の解説文である．以下，参考までに節の目次を挙げておく．
Introduction
Issues in language change
Internal and external factors
Simplicity and symmetry
Iconicity and indexicality
Markedness and naturalness
Telic changes and epiphenomena
Mergers and distinctions
Possible changes
Unidirectionality of change
Ebb and flow
Change and levels of language
Phonological change
Morphological change
Syntactic change
The study of universal grammar
The principles and parameters model
Semantic change
Pragmatic change
Methodologies
Comparative method
Internal reconstruction
Analogy
Sociolinguistic investigations
Data collection method
Genre variation and stylistics
Pathways of change
Long-term change: Grammaticalization
Large-scale changes: The typological perspective
Contact accounts
Language areas (Sprachbünde)
Conclusion
・ Hickey, Raymond. "Language Change." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 171--202.
昨日の記事「#1974. 文法化研究の発展と拡大 (1)」 ([2014-09-22-1]) を受けて，文法化 (grammaticalisation) 研究の守備範囲の広さについて補足する．Bussmann (196--97) によると，文法化がとりわけ関心をもつ疑問には次のようなものがある．
(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.
昨日記した守備範囲と合わせて，文法化研究の潜在的なカバレッジの広さと波及効果の大きさを感じることができる．また，秋元 (vii) の目次より文法化理論に関連する用語を拾い出すだけでも，この分野が言語研究の根幹に関わる諸問題を含む大項目であることがわかるだろう．
第1章 文法化
1.1 序
1.2 文法化とそのメカニズム
1.2.1 語用論的推論 (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 漂白化 (Bleaching)
1.3 一方向性 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 一般化 (Generalization)
1.3.2 脱範疇化 (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 重層化 (Layering)
1.3.4 保持化 (Persistence)
1.3.5 分岐化 (Divergence)
1.3.6 特殊化 (Specialization)
1.3.7 再新化 (Renewal)
1.4 主観化 (Subjectification)
1.5 再分析 (Reanalysis)
1.6 クラインと文法化連鎖 (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 文法化とアイコン性 (Iconicity)
1.8 文法化と外適応 (Exaptation)
1.9 文法化と「見えざる手」 (Invisible hand) 理論
1.10 文法化と「偏流」 (Drift) 論
文法化は，主として言語の通時態に焦点を当てているが，一方で主として共時的な認知文法 (cognitive grammar) や機能文法 (functional grammar) とも親和性があり，通時態と共時態の交差点に立っている．そこが，何よりも魅力である．
・ Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
・ 秋元 実治 『増補 文法化とイディオム化』 ひつじ書房，2014年．
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