最近 7 日分を以下に表示中 / 今月の一覧
2025-07-29 Tue
■ #5937. 従位接続詞以外に従位節であることを標示する手段は？ [conjunction][subordinator][syntax][word_order][interrogative_pronoun][relative_pronoun][inversion][construction][comment_clause]
昨日の記事「#5936. 現代英語の従位接続詞一覧」 ([2025-07-28-1]) で取り上げた従位接続詞 (subordinator = subordinating conjunction) について調べるなかで，従位接続詞を使用する以外にも従位節であることを標示する手段が多々あることを知った．Quirk et al. (§§11.12) が，4つの方法に言及している．
(a) wh- 語
間接疑問文，関係詞節，譲歩節などを導く．具体的には who/whom/whose, which, where, when, whether, how, what, why; whoever, whomever (rare), whichever, wherever, whenever, whatever, however などが用いられる．これらによって導かれる節のなかで主語，目的語，補語，付加語などの役割を果たし，厳密な意味での「接続詞」とはいえないものの，接続詞的な機能を有するとはいえる．
(b) 関係詞 that
接続詞 that とは，統語的な役割が異なる．
(c) 語順倒置 VS
例を見るのが早い．Had I known more, I would have refused the job. のような文の前半部分における倒置は，If I had known more とパラフレーズすることができ，統語的に従位節と同等となる．
Sad though/as I was のような不規則な語順の構文も，これに準じる．
(d) いわゆる「分詞構文」
「従位節」の定義にもよるが，The match will take place tomorrow, weather permitting. のように，非定形動詞が用いられるケースを考慮することができる．
ほかには，形式ゼロで導かれる従位節がある．例えば，従位接続詞として，あるいは関係詞としての that は，しばしば省略されるので，形式ゼロとなり得る (ex. I suppose (that) you're right) ．また，評言節では，You're right, I suppose. のように，明示的なマーカーを欠くことが多い．
・ Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.
2025-07-28 Mon
■ #5936. 現代英語の従位接続詞一覧 [conjunction][coordinator][subordinator][syntax]
昨日の記事「#5935. 現代英語の等位接続詞一覧」 ([2025-07-27-1]) に続き，今回は接続詞 (conjunction) のなかでも従位接続詞 (subordinator = subordinating conjunction) に注目し，その一覧を掲げたい．参照するのは Quirk et al. (§§11.9--11) である．
[ 単純従位接続詞 ]
after, (al)though, as, because, before, but (that), if, how(ever), like (familiar), once, since, that, till, unless, until, when(ever), where(ver), whereas, whereby, whereupon, while, whilst (especially BrE)
[ 複合従位接続詞 ]
・ that で終わるもの
in that, so that, in order that†, such that, except that, for all that, save that (literary)
・ that がオプションのもの
now (that), providing (that), provided (that), supposing (that), considering (that), given (that), granting (that), granted (that), admitting (that), assuming (that), presuming (that), seeing (that), immediately (that), directly (that)
・ as で終わるもの
as far as, as long as, as soon as, so long as, insofar as, so far as, inasmuch as (formal), according as, so as (+ to + infinitive)
・ than で終わるもの
sooner than (+ infinitive), rather than (+ infinitive)
・ その他
as if, as though, in case
[ 相関従位接続詞 ]
if . . . then, (al)though . . . yet/nevertheless, as . . . so
more/-er/less . . . than, as . . . as, so . . . as, so . . . (that), such . . . as, such . . . (that), no sooner . . . than
whether . . . or
the . . . the
ほかに古めかしい従位接続詞として albeit, lest, whence, whither を加えてもよい．
・ Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.
2025-07-27 Sun
■ #5935. 現代英語の等位接続詞一覧 [conjunction][coordinator][subordinator][syntax]
「#947. 現代英語の前置詞一覧」 ([2011-11-30-1]) に続き，典型的な機能語 (function word) とされる接続詞 (conjunction) の一覧を掲げたい．接続詞には等位接続詞 (coordinator = coordinating conjunction) と従位接続詞 (subordinator = subordinating conjunction) があり，今回は前者の一覧を示す．参照するのは Quirk et al. (§9.28) である．
［ 純粋な等位接続詞 ］
and, or, but
［ 従位接続詞に近い等位接続詞 ］
for, so that
一覧するというほどの数ではなく，実はこれで尽きてしまう．
純粋な等位接続詞かどうか怪しいものの1つ for については，「#1542. 接続詞としての for」 ([2013-07-17-1]) を参照されたい．
ほかに nor も候補としてあげられるかもしれないが，and など別の等位接続詞が先行し得る点で，純粋な等位接続詞とはいえない．both, either, neither の3語については，and, or, but とともに構成される相関接続詞 (correlative conjunction) の一部にとどまること，nor と同様に別の等位接続詞が先行し得ることから，純粋な等位接続詞とはいえない．
・ Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.
2025-07-26 Sat
■ #5934. but (that) の代用としての but what [but][conjunction][syntax][relative_pronoun][expletive]
「#5931. but の様々な用法 --- Kruisinga より」 ([2025-07-22-1]) および「#5932. but の様々な用法をどう評価するか --- Kruisinga より」 ([2025-07-24-1]) で触れたが，but には but what という妙な用法がある．but that としても，あるいは but 単体としても確認される用法だが，どういうわけか but what としても現われる．基本的には that . . . not の意を表わし，否定を含意する従属節を導く用法だ．Poutsma (793) に解説がある．
In good colloquial language, and even in ordinary Standard English, but what often takes the place of but that; thus in:
- I don't say but what he's as free as ever. Dick., Bleak House, Ch. XLIX, 410.
- Who knew but what he might yet be lingering in the neighbourhood? Mrs. Gask., Cranf., Ch. X, 187.
It is difficult to find a grammatical explanation of this construction. Possibly it is due to the influence of but what, often found at the head of attributive adnominal clauses, although also here there is a serious grammatical anomaly, viz. the use of what when the reference is to persons (Ch. XVI, 12), as in:
- He had no visible friends, but what had been acquired at Highbury. Jane Austen, Emma, Ch. III, 22.
- There's no Tulliver but what's honest. G. Eliot, Mill, III, Ch. IX, 243.
According to the O. E. D. (s.v. but, 30), "but what often occurs for but that in various senses and is still dial. and colloq."
この what を強いて文法的に解釈するのならば，従属節を導くだけの機能をもつ点で虚辞とみなしてよいだろう．関連して「#2314. 従属接続詞を作る虚辞としての that」 ([2015-08-28-1]) も参照．
・ Poutsma, H. A Grammar of Late Modern English. Part II, The Parts of Speech, II. Groningen: P. Noordhoff, 1926.
2025-07-25 Fri
■ #5933. 等位接続詞 but の「逆接」 [adversative][conjunction][semantics][pragmatics][presupposition][negative][negation][oximoron][but]
日本語の「しかし」然り，英語の but 然り，逆接の接続詞 ((adversative) conjunction) と呼ばれるが，そもそも逆接とは何だろうか．今回は英語の but を用いた表現に注目するが，例えば A but B とあるとき，A と B の関係が逆接であるとは，何を意味するのだろうか．
最も単純に考えれば，A と B が意味論的に反意の場合に，その関係は逆接といえるかもしれない．しかし，意味論的に厳密に反意の場合には，but を仲立ちとして組み合わされた表現は，逆接というよりは矛盾，あるいは撞着語法 (oxymoron) となってしまう．She is rich but poor. のような例だ．
したがって，多くの場合，but による逆接の表現は，意味論的に厳密な反意というよりも語用論的なズレというべきなのかもしれない．A を理解するために必要な前提 (presupposition) が B では通用しないとき，換言すれば A から期待されることが B で成立しないとき，語用論的な観点から，それを逆接関係とみなす傾向があるのではないか．
この辺りの問題をつらつらと考えていたが，埒が明かなそうなので，Quirk et al. （§13.32）に当たってみた．
The use of but 13.32
But expresses a contrast which could usually be alternatively expressed by and followed by yet. The contrast may be in the unexpectedness of what is said in the second conjoin in view of the content of the first conjoin:
John is poor, but he is happy. ['. . . and yet he is happy']
This sentence implies that his happiness is unexpected in view of his poverty. The unexpectedness depends on our presuppositions and our experience of the world. It would be reasonable to say:
John is rich, but he is happy.
if we considered wealth a source of misery.
The contrast expressed by but may also be a repudiation in positive terms of what has been said or implied by negation in the first conjoin (cf 13.42):
Jane did not waste her time before the exam, but studied hard every evening. [1]
In such cases the force of but can be emphasized by the conjunct rather or on the contrary (cf 8.137):
I am not objecting to his morals, but rather to his manners. [2]
With this meaning, but normally does not link two clauses, but two smaller constituents; for example, the conjoins are two predicates in [1] and two prepositional phrases in [2]. The conjoins cannot be regarded as formed simply by ellipsis from two full clauses, since the not in the first clause conjoin is repudiated in the second. Thus the expansion of [2] into two full clauses must be as follows:
I am not objecting to his morals, but (rather) I am objecting to his manners.
この節を読み，not A but B の表現においてなぜ but が用いられるかの理屈が少し分かってきた．A は否定的で，B は肯定的であるという，極性が反対向きであることを逆接の接続時 but が表わしている，ということなのだろう．
・ Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
2025-07-24 Thu
■ #5932. but の様々な用法をどう評価するか --- Kruisinga より [but][polysemy][conjunction][preposition][adverb][negation][polarity][negative]
昨日の記事「#5931. but の様々な用法 --- Kruisinga より」 ([2025-07-22-1]) でみた but の様々な用法間の関係について，Kruisinga は結論部となる1節で次のように述べている (II. 2, p. 433) ．
1514. In dealing with the meanings of the conjunction as an attempt has been made to show most of its uses as a development of its comparative sense. No such attempt has been made in the case of but because its various meanings are not connected but isolated. The result of this isolation (indeed its cause as well) is that but is not so strong and live an element of present-day English, and several of its uses tend to be restricted to literary English, i.e. they are on the road that will ultimately lead to their disappearance. This may be said of the uses in 1509, 1 and 3; 1510, 2; the use of but what may be considered dialectal by some, although it is not corrected away by editors and writers.
but の多様な用法が as のそれと比較されているが，後者はある程度は統一的に説明できるものの，前者それが無理だと述べられている．それほど but の多義性は厄介である．歴史的な観点からも説明しがたい難物．
・ Kruisinga, E A Handbook of Present-Day English. 4 vols. Groningen, Noordhoff, 1909--11.
2025-07-23 Wed
■ #5931. but の様々な用法 --- Kruisinga より [but][polysemy][conjunction][preposition][adverb][negation][polarity][negative]
連日 but に注目している．この単語の様々な用法について．Kruisinga (II. 2, pp. 431--33) が5節にわたり紹介している．とりわけ関係代名詞的な用法や緩く副詞節を導く用法の扱いを取り上げている．
1509. But can be used in simple sentences, also as a coordinating conjunction, and as a subordinating conjunction to introduce a clause.
In simple sentences the conjunction but is not easily to be distinguished from adverbs; it may express:
(1) 'only', as in She is but a child.
(2) 'except', as in They are all wrong but he. See also 974f.
(3) 'than', after comparatives and similar words, as in There remains no more but to thank you for your courteous attention; It is nothing else but laziness.
1510. As a conjunction connecting sentences but may express a restriction of a preceding coordinate statement, as in You were right but you should not have said anything about it.
As a subordinating conjunction but may introduce:
(1) attributive clauses defining a noun in a negative sentence; the antecedent noun has the function of the subject of the clause.
- Not a paper reaches us from Russia but contains an account of some new educational enterprise. (Times Ed. S. 29/5, '19.)
- Few readers but will be astonished to find that the field should be so rich and wide. (Times Lit. 25/1, '18.)
- There are few thinking people but realize the great war as the death-agony of an old order, the birth-travail of a new. (Times Lit. 10/9, '15.)
- Colburn ... was too clever to need a magazine; not a living publisher but would have to yield to him in the gentle art of puffing. (ib. 20/4, '17.)
(2) adverb and object clauses. These two kinds are here grouped together because a distinction is necessarily arbitrary and meaningless. The leading clause is always negative just as in the preceding case.
- Justice was never done but someone complained.
- Who knows but he may hear of it?
1511. When the negative noun that may be said to be defined by a but-clause is not the subject of the subordinate clause, the attributive character of the clause is so little marked that it may be interpreted as an adverb clause (a). The same can be said of attributive clauses when the noun is referred to by a personal pronoun as a subject of the clause (b).
a. Scarcely a week passes but the association is consulted by private landowners or by public authorities.
b. There was never a Samson so strong but he met his Delilah. (Hobbes, Emotions I ch. 4.)
1512. The subordinating character of but is sometimes emphasized by adding that; see 1492. It occurs:
(1) in the sense of except that; compare 1509, 2.
- Each would have done the same by the other but that they lacked the courage.
(2) in a sense very similar to that of 1511.
- He is not such a fool but that he can see that.
- I do not think it possible but that some will agree with me.
1513. A less frequent group-conjunction is but what.
- Not a mood of his but what found a ready sympathiser in Margaret; not a wish of his that she did not strive to forecast, and to fulfil. (Gaskell, North and South ch. 41 p. 364)
- Not a soul in the auditorium or on the stage but what lived consummately during these minutes. (Bennett, Leonora ch. 6.)
- Therefore we seldom took a walk together but what we were stoned by boys in the street. (Davies, Super-Tramp ch. 21 p. 181.)
このような but の多様な用法を貫く原義や原理はあるのだろうか．いずれの用法にしても否定的な文脈で用いられているのが特徴的といえるが，この否定極性を別にすれば，共通する特徴を見出すのは容易ではない．
・ Kruisinga, E A Handbook of Present-Day English. 4 vols. Groningen, Noordhoff, 1909--11.
| このページへのアクセス数 | |
| 最終更新時間 | 2025-07-29 10:58 |
Copyright (c) Ryuichi Hotta, 2009--
