Passive verbs (受動態)

These cause problems because the passive in English is not exactly the same as the passive (受身、受動態) in Japanese.

(If you wish to review how to form passives before you read the explanation, do these quizzes [from English Exercises Online]. When you have finished one quiz, click 'new exercise' if you wish to do another one.)

1. In English, only transitive verbs (他動詞) have a passive form.
A transitive verb is a verb which can have an object.
Examples are 'eat', 'write', 'make', 'say', 'believe'.
The big fish ate the little fish.
Charles Dickens wrote A Tale of Two Cities in 1859.
A friend made this paper crane for me before I left Japan.
People often say that Japan has the most efficient public transport system in the world.
The police believe that Mr Tanaka died in suspicious circumstances.

Note that some verbs, such as 'send' , 'give', and 'promise' can have two objects.
A Japanese NPO sent the earthquake victims blankets and tents.
Santa Claus does not give naughty children any presents.
My boyfriend promised me a kiss.

(Verbs which cannot take an object are called 'intransitives' (自動詞). Examples are 'rain', 'cry', 'die'. Some verbs can be used as both transitives and intransitives. Examples are 'open', 'meet', 'begin'.
The lift doors opened and I got out automatically, without realising that it was not my floor. (intransitive)
As a result of the power cut, it was necessary to open all the lift doors manually. (transitive)

Note that only the transitive meanings of these verbs can be turned into the passive:
Some people had to wait for several hours before the lift doors were opened by the emergency services.
For Jack Bradshaw's quiz on the use of 'raise, raised, raised' (transitive) and 'rise, rose, risen' (intransitive), click here.)

2.Look at the two sentences below. The first one contains an active verb (能動態). In the second sentence, the same idea has been expressed using a passive verb.

The big fish ate the little fish.
The little fish was eaten by the big fish.
The object of the active verb (the little fish)has become the subject or 'recipient' of the passive verb (the person/thing that 'receives' the action). The subject of the active verb (the big fish) has become the agent of the passive verb.
In the case of a verb that can have two objects, either object can become the recipient when the verb is in the passive:
The earthquake victims were sent blankets and tents by a Japanese NPO.
Blankets and tents were sent to the earthquake victims by a Japanese NPO.


3. In English, the passive is used in the following situations:
a) When you want to explain the action from the point of view of the recipient. For example, if you write 'The little fish was eaten by the big fish.', the focus is on the little fish being eaten rather than on the big fish eating it. Note that in Japanese you could express this by using the passive (「小さい魚は大きい魚に食べられた。」, but that you could also say 「小さい魚は大きい魚が食べた。」
Another example: If your focus is on Charles Dickens and his writing activities, you would say
Charles Dickens wrote A Tale of Two Cities in 1859.
On the other hand, if your focus is on A Tale of Two Cities and its origins, you would say
A Tale of Two Cities was written by Charles Dickens in 1859.

b)When the action has no clear agent. or there is no need to mention the agent. (This is important in English because - unlike Japanese - every verb must have a subject.)
He was hurt in a car accident. (交通事故で怪我をした。)
The television has been mended at last. (テレビがやっとなおった。)
The door has been shut. (ドアが閉めてある。)

c) Note that although Microsoft's Word software encourages you not to use it, the passive is a feature of academic writing because it is impersonal and therefore gives an impression of objectivity. For example:
It is often said that Japan has the most efficient public transport system in the world. (instead of 'People often say')
It is believed that Mr Tanaka died in suspicious circumstances. (instead of 'The police believe')

This handout from Purdue University's Online Writing Lab gives advice that should help you to choose whether to use an active or a passive verb.
In this quiz (by Vera Mello), you have to choose whether or not a passive verb should be used.

NOTE THESE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PASSIVES IN ENGLISH AND JAPANESE:

1. In English, the subject of a passive verb is frequently an inanimate object (a thing such as a book or a paper crane). There is no problem with saying 'This paper crane was made for me by a friend', whereas Japanese would be more likely to avoid the passive (「この鶴は友達によって作られた。」) in favour of この鶴は友達が作ってくれた。」or 「この鶴は友達に作ってもらった。」

2. Since English intransitive verbs do not have a passive form, there is no direct equivalent for common Japanese expressions such as the following:
子供に泣かれた。(The child cried. / I couldn't stop the child from crying.)
雨に降られた。 (We were caught in the rain.)

3. Verbs which normally only have one object cannot take an object in the passive. This often causes difficulties to speakers of Japanese. For example:
The refugees' rights were violated. (難民は人権を侵害された。)
Note that it is not possible to make the refugees the subject of this sentence.

Note, however, the following:
My purse was taken.
I had my purse taken. (財布をとられた。)


Finally, you can test both your knowledge of the passive and your knowledge of the universe bydoing this quiz (from E. Pritchard's ESL Blues). You could also try this quiz from Hong Kong University's English Centre.